Industrial Minerals Review 2013
| By Anonymous | |
| Proquest LLC |
Editor's note: Each year. Mining Engineering features an industrial minerals review. Several people put in a fair amount of time in developing the material for this issue, all the while doing their own jobs. Thank you to the industrial minerals annual review editor, to the Industrial Minerals and Aggregates Division technical committee chair and vice-chairs, and to the authors of the individual commodity profiles.
The technical committee vice chairs include:
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* Ebrhaim K. Tarshizi, member SME, of the
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Their help makes possible this July industrial minerals issue. On behalf of ME readers, the editors thank them.
BALL CLAY
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Four companies -
Consumption
In 2013, domestic ball clay producers sold clays to the following markets: ceramic floor and wall tile (44 percent); exports (21 percent); sanitaryware (18 percent); miscellaneous ceramics (9 percent); fillers, extenders and binders, and unspecified uses (4 percent each), based on 2012 end use patterns and current markets. Other markets accounted for less than 1 percent of the remaining ball clay sales or use. Sales reported for the manufacture of fiberglass or most filler, extender, and binder applications were likely to have been mainly kaolin mined or purchased by the ball clay producers.
Prices
The average value of domestically produced ball clay was approximately
Foreign trade
According to the
fronds and outlook
The outlook for the ball clay industry is for increasing sales as the U.S. economy continues to recover from the economic recession. Commercial building and home construction activities, which are critical to ball clay sales because of its use in the manufacture of ceramic tile and sanitaryware, increased significantly in 2013. The
Domestic sales of ball clay also are affected by imports of ball clay-based products such as ceramic tile and sanitaryware. In 2013, imports of ceramic tile decreased in quantity to 5.58 Mm2 (60.1 million sq ft) valued at
BAUXITE AND ALUMINA
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Production and trade
Metallurgical-grade bauxite (crude dry) imports in 2013 totaled 9.8 Mt (10.1 million st), 5 percent less than the quantity imported in 2012.
2012 imports.
Restocking of inventories was cited for the increased imports of refractory-grade calcined bauxite as exports of bauxite-based refractory products decreased, compared with 2012. Domestic steel production, the principal use for bauxite-based refractory products, decreased by about 2 percent in 2013, compared with production in 2012.
Imports of nonrefractory-grade calcined bauxite in 2013 totaled 455 kt (501,500 st),40 percent more than the quantity imported in 2012. This increase was attributed to increased use of bauxite in cement, as proppants for hydraulic fracturing by the petroleum industry and by steel makers.
In 2013,
Domestic production of alumina in 2013 was estimated to be 4.1 Mt (4.6 million st), 7 percent lower than in 2012. The decrease in production was attributed to lower production at
Imports of alumina totaled 2.05 Mt (2.26 million st) in 2013, 8 percent more than imports of alumina in 2012.
Consumption
Total domestic consumption of bauxite (in crude dry equivalents) was estimated to be 9.8 Mt (10.1 million st) in 2013,2 percent higher than in 2012. Of this total, approximately 8.8 Mt (9.1 million st) was used for producing alumina. 6 percent lower than in the prior year. Other uses of bauxite included manufacturing abrasives, cement, chemicals and refractories, as well as uses in the petroleum industry, steel production and water treatment.
Total domestic consumption of alumina by the aluminum industry was 3.89 Mt (4.29 million st) in 2013, 6 percent less than 2012. Approximately 490 kt (540,000 st) of alumina was consumed by other industries in
Prices
Prices for imported and exported bauxite varied depending on the source, destination and grade. Unit values for imported refractory-grade calcined bauxite in 2013 from the principal sources were
In 2013, values for imported nonrefractory-grade, calcined bauxite from the principal sources ranged from
Outlook
Low prices for aluminum continued throughout 2013 and into the first quarter of 2014. Low aluminum prices and high power costs were cited as reasons for the shutdown of one domestic primary aluminum smelter during 2013 and for another announced in the first quarter of 2014. New power supply agreements were reached between the owners and power suppliers of three primary aluminum smelters in late 2013 and early 2014. However, the owners of two other smelters were trying to negotiate power supply agreements to lower electricity prices.
Although aluminum prices have stabilized during the first quarter of 2014, alumina demand would be dependent upon new power supply agreements for some smelters. Although natural gas prices in
Imports of refractory-grade calcined bauxite were expected to depend on steel production, but substitution of aluminum for steel by automakers seeking to improve fuel efficiency might reduce demand for steel and refractory products used in steel making. Consumption of nonrefractory-grade, calcined bauxite was expected to increase in 2014 with further use in abrasives, cement and hydraulic fracturing by the petroleum industry. *
BENTONITE
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In 2013, the bentonite industry remained unchanged from 2012. with total production and sales in
On a world scale, major producers of sodium activated bentonite are in
In 2013, drilling-grade bentonite for the drilling and recovery of oil and gas was the largest use of swelling bentonite, with about 1.15 Mt (1.26 million st) produced. The active drilling rig count continued to increase during 2013, confirming the return of oil and gas drilling. In particular, horizontal drilling for shale production was a major application for bentonite usage.
The clumping pet litter absorbent market is the second largest market for granular swelling bentonite. Although clumping pet litter reached 1.24 Mt (1.36 million st) in 2005.it has hovered between 1.05 and 1.08 Mt (1.15 and 1.19 million st) for several years, with the 2013 market at about 1.05 Mt (1.15 million st).
Iron ore pelletizing with swelling bentonite is the third largest market, growing to 550 kt (606.000 st) in 2013 as the demand for iron and steel increased with U.S. automobile and heavy equipment production.
The use of swelling bentonite as a foundry sand binder for iron, steel and other metals averaged above 500 kt (550,000 st) since 2011. New product inventions have not significantly affected these four large granular and pulverized swelling bentonite markets.
The bentonite market for civil engineering applications, separately classified beginning in 2005. was 175 kt (192,000 st), showing that this market is beginning to recover from the 2008 recession. The water-proofing and sealing bentonite market continued to increase with the construction industry after the U.S. recession to 150 kt (165,000 st) in 2013. Other minor swelling-bentonite markets for adhesives, animal feed, fillers and extenders and miscellaneous applications have not generally recovered from the 2008 recession.
Specialty markets for a tiny portion of the bentonite market include beverage and wine clarification, and organoclay products. AMCOL, Southern Clay Products,
The U.S. dollar exchange rate has helped swelling bentonite exports since the 2008 worldwide recession. In 2013, domestic bentonite producers reported that exports of bentonite for drilling mud, foundry sand binder and other miscellaneous markets reached 950 kt (1.05 million st). Minor imports of bentonite came from
BISMUTH AND ANTIMONY
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Bismuth is a heavier element chemically related to antimony. It is a byproduct of lead and tungsten extraction and, to a lesser extent, of copper and tin extraction. Antimony is a lighter chemical element. It is an extraction coproduct of metals such as lead, silver and gold. The major uses of bismuth and antimony are as chemical compounds.
End uses
Bismuth compounds and antimony compounds and related nonmetallic uses account for most of the consumption of these chemical elements. Very little is used as a metal or alloy.
The largest end-use group for bismuth is the chemicals group, which includes pharmaceuticals such as stomach medicine (Pepto Bismol) (bismuth subsalicylate), cosmetics for a pearlescent effect under the eyes (bismuth oxychloride), catalysts and other chemical uses such as paint (bismuth vanadate yellow).
The next most important end-use group of bismuth is the metallurgical additives group, whose components prevent the crystallization of graphite from molten steel supersaturated with carbon, facilitate free machining in steel, copper and aluminum and facilitate an even coat in galvanizing. For all of the applications in this additives group, bismuth is not acting as an alloying agent but more like a catalyst that discourages, encourages or creates certain reactions or properties. Steel needs only 0.1 percent bismuth or selenium to give it good machinability. In comparison with these end-use groups, the bismuth alloy group accounts for a minor amount of bismuth, which is used in fusible alloys, other low-melting point alloys and in ammunition.
The largest use of antimony is in the flame retardant group, mostly in treating plastics, adhesives and textiles. Antimony oxide has a special role among flame retardants as a gas phase radical quencher, amid a variety of mostly halogenated materials that are used as flame retardants.
The other nonmetal product group includes major uses in pigments and in glass (including ceramics). Antimony oxide in most glasses and ceramics acts as an opacifying agent, but antimony in specialty glasses can clarify them. The antimonial lead and alloys group mostly comprises the antimonial lead used in gasolinedriven automotive storage batteries.
Recycling and environmental
Recyclability ranges from the nearly impossible, (the bismuth in stomach medicine and cosmetics because it is completely scattered) through lessening degrees of difficulty, such as antimony in flame retardants, bismuth in metallurgical additives and galvanizing, antimony additives in glass, and bismuth in catalysts. The easiest, simplest and cheapest recycling occurs with bismuth in fusible and other alloys and antimony in the antimonial lead plates of storage batteries.
Statistics
U.S. imports of bismuth metal, the largest-volume category, was 1,699 t (1,872 st) in 2012 and 1,708 t (1,882 st) in 2013, essentially unchanged. U.S. imports of antimony oxide, the largest volume category, was 20.7 kt (22,800 st) (gross amount) in 2012, and 21.9 kt (24,100 st) in 2013, a minor increase. Two months data for 2014 suggests a continuation of this pattem. The
Outlook
The 2011 (latest published) annual end-use totals for U.S. bismuth consumption were 222 t (245 st) for the metallurgical additives group and 54 t (59 st) for bismuth alloys. The balance was mostly for chemicals, 6681 (736 st).
The USGS apparent antimony consumption in the U.S. was 21.7 kt (23,900 st) in 2012 and 24 kt (26,500 st) in 2013.
In the absence of most data, the results for 2013 were almost unchanged for bismuth. For antimony, examining limited data, 2013 consumption should be about 10 percent above 2012. For 2014, bismuth seems likely to stay static and antimony drop off a little.
The Basics Mines Update blog will have later statistics as they become available. *
BORATES
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Four minerals account for 90 percent of the borates used by industry worldwide - the sodium borates, tincal and kernite; the calcium borate, colemanite; and the sodium-calcium borate, ulexite. Borax is a white crystalline substance, chemically known as sodium tetraborate decahydrate, found naturally as the mineral tincal. Boric acid is a colorless crystalline solid sold in technical, national formulary and special quality grades as granules or powder and marketed most often as anhydrous boric acid. Deposits of borates are associated with volcanic activity and arid climates, with the largest economically viable deposits located in the Mojave Desert of
Production
U.S. production of boron minerals and compounds increased slightly in 2013 from 2012; the total is withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data. Two companies in southern
Consumption
Foreign trade
International
Outlook
Roskill Information Services estimated that global borates demand would increase between 4.5 and 4.7 percent per year through 2014, driven in large part by increased consumption in the glass industry. In particular, boron consumption by the global fiberglass industry was projected to increase by 7 percent through 2013, spurred by a projected 19 percent increase in Chinese consumption.
BROMINE
by JA Ober,
The element bromine is found principally as a dissolved species in seawater, evaporitic (salt) lakes and underground brines associated with petroleum deposits. Seawater contains about 65 parts per million of bromine or an estimated 100 Tt (1.1 trillion st). In the
All production of bromine in 2013 in
Domestic production data for elemental bromine were withheld in 2013 to avoid disclosing company proprietary data, but
Excluding
Although no actual price lists were available from U.S. bromine producers, bromine prices were thought to have been relatively stable in 2013. In addition to tight supplies, price increases can be influenced by changes in the costs of energy, raw materials, regulatory compliance and transportation.
The primary uses of bromine compounds are in flame retardants, drilling fluids, brominated pesticides (mostly methyl bromide) and water treatment. Bromine is also used in the manufacture of dyes, insect repellents, perfumes, pharmaceuticals and photographic chemicals. Other products include intermediate chemicals used to manufacture still other chemical products, as well as bromide solutions used alone or in combination with other chemicals. Some bromide solutions were recycled to obtain elemental bromine and to prevent the solutions from being disposed of as hazardous waste.
The use of bromine in flame retardants is declining because of the environmental considerations and potential health effects related to specific bromine flame-retardant compounds. In 2010, U.S. bromine chemical producers and importers reached an agreement with the
Several companies continued to pursue the use of bromine to mitigate mercury emissions at power plants as a new market. Bromine compounds bond with mercury in flue gases from coal-fired power plants creating mercuric bromide, a substance that is more easily captured in fluegas scrubbers than the mercuric chloride that is produced at many facilities. Wide acceptance of the new technology would likely increase demand for bromine, counteracting, at least in part, the decline expected from the ban on Deca-BDE.
Future growth in bromine consumption likely will be driven by increased use of flame retardants in developing countries as they begin to introduce more stringent flammability standards and begin to use more plastic materials. Other growth areas are agricultural and pharmaceutical intermediates, food safety applications, mercury reduction at coal-fired power plants, oil-well-drilling fluids, rubber additives and water treatment chemicals. Once a widely used pesticide, methyl bromide has been banned because of its ozone-depleting properties, and its use is allowed only where critical use exemptions have been granted. The amount of methyl bromine allowed through exemptions has declined steadily since 2005, when the ban was enacted. Bromine use will likely continue to decline in photographic applications because digital imaging has replaced film in most consumer and professional photography. *
CEMENT
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Production and shipments
The U.S. portland cement industry had a welcomed improvement in shipments and prices in 2013. The forecast increase in demand issued in early 2013 of 8.1 percent was not quite realized, but shipments in 2013 of portland, blended and masonry cements did increase by 4.5 percent to 84.1 Mt (93 million st). Continued growth in shipments is forecast for 2014 at an expected rate of 8 percent. This encouraging trend is attributed to expected increases in all forms of construction driven by pent-up demand for housing and other factors.
Estimated shipments at year end 2013 totaled 80.2 Mt (88 million st) of portland cement, 1.75 Mt (1.9 million st) of blended and 2.1 Mt (2.3 million st) of masonry cement, an increase of 3.75 Mt (4.1 million st). Imports, reported as 6.4 Mt (7 million st) of grey and white portland and masonry cements, were up by 200 kt (220,000 st), about 2.9 percent. Imported clinker increased by 20 kt (22.000 st), about 2.6 percent, to 806 kt (888,000 st). Resumption of cement imports by independent cement importers appears to be minimal. Shipments of imported cement reported to the
Production of portland, masonry and blended cement increased in 2013 by about 3.4 Mt (3.7 million st) (4.6 percent) to 77.4 Mt (85 million st). Demand for blended cement increased by 100 kt (110,000 st) and for masonry cement by 150 kt (165,000 st) in 2013.The author estimates inventories of cement were reduced by about 175 kt (192,000 st) compared to year end 2012. Inventories typically increase in the first quarter of the year to meet demand for cement in the April to October peak construction period, when demand exceeds production capacity.
The USGS reported that production of clinker, the intermediate product for the production of cements, increased by 2.2 Mt (2.4 million st) to 69.9 Mt (77 million st) in 2012. Industry capacity of cement is about
White portland and masonry cement U.S. production in 2013 was estimated to be the same as in 2012, about 150 kt (165,000 st). Imports, which were unchanged at 780 kt (860,000 st). principally from
Raw materials and fuels
The raw materials for the production of portland cement clinker are limestone (the source of calcium carbonate), clay and shale and small amounts of mill scale and other forms of iron oxide (the argillaceous sources of silica and alumina and iron oxides). Approximately 97.8 Mt (107 million st) of limestone and 17.5 Mt (19.3 million st) of argillaceous materials were quarried to produce clinker. Cement plants continue to increase their use of waste materials as partial replacement for clay and shale, however quantities are not tracked. Additionally, approximately 3.9 Mt (4.3 million st) of gypsum and synthetic gypsum were used in the production of portland, blended and masonry cement. Substitution of synthetic gypsum for natural gypsum is a cost advantage, but not all plants can do so because of technical and quality issues. An increasing number of plants introduce small quantities of limestone or slag or kiln dust into their cement to reduce the cost of production. ASTM updated the Cl 157 standard of cement allowing the inclusion of limestone and kiln dust as long as the C150 strength standard is met. The amount of dust varies from plant to plant and. in some cases, will be significant depending on customer specifications. The inclusion of these materials reduces the amount of clinker in portland cement, which increases a plant's cement capacity and lowers the cost of production. The amount of slag and other materials with pozzolanic properties in blended cement varies depending on cement strength and market conditions but typically is below the maximum allowed in ASTM 595 specifications.
Coal and petroleum coke are the typical fuels used to fire the rotary kilns and calciners to make cement clinker. It is estimated that coal consumed in production of clinker increased to 8.5 Mt (9.4 million st), an increase of 200 kt (220,000 st) from 2012. The reduction in natural gas prices has had less of an impact on the use of coal and petroleum coke in the industry than expected. The cost of natural gas varies due to plant location and supply capacity but is not less than the cost of coal. Consequently, there is no economic advantage to using natural gas. The high cost of petroleum coke has reduced its use significantly. The use of scrap tires as an auxiliary fuel has had a greater impact on the reduction of coal consumed, as kiln fuel and many kilns are now fired with whole tires, which typically account for 10- to 15-percent of kiln fuel. The economic downturn resulted in less efficient kilns being shut down or mothballed. Production is concentrated in the more efficient, modern calciner-preheater kilns. It is anticipated that the use of alternative fuels, such as refuse-derived fuels, carpet fluff, wood wastes and tires will increase because of cost advantages, although quantities are not tracked or publicly available. These alternative types of fuels have a marginal, but welcome, impact on cost of production.
Imports
Increases in imports of cement and clinker in 2013 were modest, totaling 200 kt (220,000 st). A significant amount of the imported clinker is to supply the
New capacity and plant modernization
During 2013, the second kiln line at the Hunter, TX plant of
The
As 2013 drew to a close,
Environmental and other regulations
In 2013, cement companies were in the engineering and construction phases of projects to bring their plants into compliance with the hazardous air pollutants, oxides of nitrogen and sulfur dioxide standards. Considerable improvement in processes to meet the mercury rule at those plants with significant Hg emissions have been achieved. Compliance with these standards has, in some cases, been costly.
The USGS reported that production of clinker, the intermediate product for the production of cements, increased by 2.2 Mt (2.4 million st) to 69.9 Mt (77 million st) in 2012. Industry capacity of cement is about
COMMON CLAY AND SHALE
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Common clay is a natural, fine-grained material composed of hydrous aluminum silicates. Shale is a laminated, sedimentary rock formed by the consolidation of clay, mud and (or) silt.
Production
In 2013, approximately 120 companies produced common clay and shale in 39 states for heavy clay products, such as brick, flue tile, roof tile, sewer pipe and structural tile, as well as for lightweight aggregate and portland cement.
Estimated domestic production in 2013 was 11.8 Mt (13 million st), valued at
The leading producing states were, in descending order of tonnage,
Consumption
In 2013,11.8 Mt ( 13 million st) of common clay and shale were sold or used, a slight increase from 2012. The leading markets for common clay and shale were building brick (45 percent of sales or use), portland cement (24 percent) and lightweight aggregates (23 percent). The 2.78 Mt (3.06 million st) sold or used to manufacture lightweight aggregate were subdivided into concrete block (45 percent of the lightweight aggregate market), structural concrete (19 percent), and highway surfacing and miscellaneous lightweight aggregates (18 percent each).
An estimated 250 kt (276,000 st) of common clay and shale was sold for the manufacture of refractory products, mainly refractory mortar and cement, and 181 kt (200,000 st) was sold for the manufacture of ceramic floor and wall tile. Other markets for common clay and shale included miscellaneous ceramics and glass, drain tile, flower pots, flue linings, roofing granules, sewer pipe and structural tile.
Prices
The average unit value for all common clay and shale produced in
Unit values for common clay and shale should be used with caution. Most common clay and shale producers do not sell their clay but use it directly to manufacture products and have not established a selling price for their clays.
Outlook
Major markets for common clay and shale were heavy-clay products such as brick, floor tile, flue linings, quarry tile, roofing granules, roofing tile, sewer tile and structural tile for residential and commercial construction.
CONSTRUCTION AGGREGATES
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Construction aggregates consist primarily of sand, gravel, crushed stone and, to a lesser degree, iron or steel slag, and recycled asphalt and concrete. Of the natural aggregates, crushed stone is used for most construction purposes. Crushed stone can be mined from a variety of rock types such as limestone, dolomite (dolostone), granite and granitic type rocks, basalt and gabbro (traprock), sandstones, schist, marble, gneiss, quartzite, rhyolite, calcareous marl, shells, volcanic cinder and scoria. Each of these rock types has particular physical and chemical properties that allows the rock to meet certain specifications set forth by the
Some rock types, such as traprock, generally meet all specifications, while others, such as some sandstones, may not. Volcanic cinder and scoria may not meet specifications for a hard, durable aggregate but is used as a source of lightweight aggregate. Calcareous marl maybe used for low-grade base products. It is certainly a raw material used in making cement.
In 2013, the
The leading producing states for crushed stone aggregate were
The leading states in sand and gravel production were
Since a number of rock quarries and sand and pits need to be near urban areas to transport their product cheaply to the market, the public is exposed to their operations more than any other mining industry. The industry has come a long way in mitigating many environmental concerns of the local citizens. Because about 80 percent of aggregate production is transported by truck, truck traffic remains a concern to the local citizens and is difficult to mitigate.
Dust, noise, blasting, and wetlands and safety issues have been widely mitigated in most operations. Still, the fact remains that opposition from not-in-mybackyard citizens costs the industry undue permitting expenses in new or the expansion of existing rock quarries or sand and gravel pits. Therefore, the industry seems to prefer acquisitions rather than greenfield sites. However, it not uncommon to permit a small rock quarry site or sand and gravel pit. Generally, these sites have limited production and, therefore, little impact on people and the environment.
There were several small acquisitions in 2013. These acquisitions go unnoticed because they are small, local state producers buying a small rock quarry or sand and gravel pit with limited reserves or poor-quality material. Some acquisitions are widely reported such as Martin Marietta's acquisition of TXI. This procedure started in 2013 and finished the early part of this year.
Another acquisition worth noting was Payne & Dolan Asphalt's based (
In 2013, the private sector help fuel the aggregate market in larger urban areas, such as DallasFort Worth,TX,
DIATOMITE
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The unit value of diatomite varied widely by end use in 2013. Diatomite used as a lightweight aggregate was priced at
Six companies operated 10 mines and nine processing facilities in
Diatomite is a chalk-like, soft, friable, very-finegrained. siliceous sedimentary rock. Typically light in color (white if pure, commonly buff to gray in situ), diatomite is also very finely porous, very low in density and essentially chemically inert. Diatomaceous earth (DE) is a common alternate name, but the term is more appropriate for unconsolidated or less lithified rock of the same origin.
Diatomite deposits accumulate in oceans or fresh waters from the cell walls of diatoms, composed of amorphous hydrous silica. Diatoms are microscopic, single-celled organisms, often appearing as colonial aquatic plants (algae). Diatom cells contain an elaborate internal siliceous skeleton. More than 10,000 living diatom species have been identified, in addition to another 10.000 known diatom fossil forms.
The internal structure and inert chemical composition of diatomite make it an excellent raw material for filtration, absorbent and filler applications. Filtration.especially the purification of beer, liquors and wine, and the cleansing of greases and oils, continued to be the largest diatomite end use. Other applications included the removal of microbial contaminants, such as bacteria, protozoa and viruses, from public water systems.
The use of diatomite as fillers and in pharmaceutical applications, including the filtration of human blood plasma, continues to increase, as has its use as an insecticide base and in cement and concrete pozzolan. In 2013, diatomite-derived products included filter aids (56 percent of diatomite consumption), cement manufacture (15 percent), fillers (14 percent), absorbents (13 percent) and other minor uses, including specialized pharmaceutical and biomedical applications (2 percent).
Diatomite deposits are usually mined as openpit operations. If necessary, the mined crude ore is dried and crushed. Dried diatomite is collected in cyclones and fed through air separators to remove coarse material and impurities. Calcination and flux calcination are used to thermally volatize organic material and oxidize iron. Calcination also is used to increase diatomite hardness, specific gravity and refractive index. The fusing of small diatomite particles into clusters can also be accomplished through calcination, which results in increased pore size and volume. Diatomite products are sold as various grades of calcined powders.
Global production
Total world production of diatomite was approximately 2.2 Mt (2.4 million st) in 2013.
World resources of crude diatomite appear to be adequate for the foreseeable future. However, transportation costs may encourage development of sources of material closer to markets.
Substitutes for diatomite
Many materials can be substituted for diatomite, especially for lightweight aggregate purposes, such as expanded perlite and silica sand. Synthetic filters, including ceramic, polymeric or carbon membrane, and cellulose fibers offer competition as filter media. Alternate filler materials include clay, perlite, talc, vermiculite, ground limestone, mica and silica sand.
For thermal insulation purposes, materials such as specialty brick, various clays, mineral wool, expanded perlite and exfoliated vermiculite may be used. Many alternatives exist for diatomite as a pozzolan, but its use as an ingredient of portland cement has increased in recent years. However, the encroachment of natural and synthetic substitute materials into diatomite markets has not been significant.
The use of diatomite as fillers and in pharmaceutical applications, including the filtration of human blood plasma, continues to increase, as has its use as an insecticide base and in cement and concrete pozzolan. In 2013, diatomite-derived products included filter aids (56 percent of diatomite consumption), cement manufacture (15 percent), fillers (14 percent), absorbents (13 percent) and other minor uses, including specialized pharmaceutical and biomedical applications (2 percent).
DIMENSION STONE
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Dimension stone is a natural stone that has been selected and fabricated to specific sizes or shapes. One major type is granite, a visibly granular igneous rock, generally ranging in color from pink to light or dark gray and consisting mostly of quartz and feldspars, accompanied by one or more dark minerals. A second major type is marble, a carbonate rock capable of taking a polish. A third major type is limestone, a rock of sedimentary origin composed principally of calcite (calcium carbonate) or dolomite (calcium magnesium carbonate), or both. Yet another major type is sandstone, a quartz-based sedimentary rock with at least 60 percent free silica and the closely related bluish-gray bluestone. A final major type is slate, a microcrystalline metamorphic rock most commonly derived from shale and composed mostly of micas, chlorite and quartz.
Statistics for 2012-2013
The Overall Dimension Stone [U.S.] ProductionDemand Index was 228 for 2009, 249 for 2010, 271 for 2011, 301 for 2012, and 353 for 2013. Overall U.S. dimension stone demand in 2013 is up almost 17 percent from 2012; both components showed a notable improvement. The Demand Index for granite countertops was 948 in 2008,624 in 2009,807 in 2010, 860 in 2011, 889 in 2012, and 1077 in 2013 (compare to 1066 in 2007). The Demand Index for granite and marble tile was 429 in 2008, 286 in 2009, 270 in 2010,299 in 2011,359 in 2012, and 470 (final) in 2013 (compare 473 in 2007).
Each of the four quarters of 2013, in total, were stronger than that same quarter in 2012, and stronger also for both of its major components, granite and marble.
The world demand for granite, as shown by the total exports of finished stone from its major exporting nations, was 236 in 2010, 271 in 2011, and 279 in 2012, and the world demand for marble, again as shown by exports of finished stone from major exporting nations, was 265 in 2010, 303 in 2011, and 327 in 2012.
Market-related developments
The "Compendium of World Dimension Stone Data," by this author, was published by the
The dimension stone wiki covers the major applications (i.e., stone countertops, tiles, and monuments), what stones are used (i.e. marble, granite), and preferred colors. It also describes life cycle assessments, including environmental performance measures such as global warming potential, ozone depletion potential, and toxicity. The data on energy and water use go all the way back to overburden removal and forward through the product.
Outlook for 2014
The major stone sectors are as follows: domestic granite monuments sales in 2014 are likely to be flat with 2013 (granite monuments in 2013 were level with 2012),
Slate sales (domestic) in 2014 are likely to be level with 2013 sales, and building sandstone and flagstone sales in 2014 are likely to be up 5 percent from 2013, and high-end (custom) up even more. According to the DSAN observers, granite countertop sales in 2014 are likely to be up 10 percent from 2013. Marble tile sales in 2014 are likely to be up 10 percent from 2013. The outlooks above are preliminary, and later versions could appear on the Basics Mines Update blog. *
FIRE CLAY
by R.L Virta,
Four companies mined fire clay in three states in 2013. Production, based on a preliminary survey of the fire clay industry, was estimated to be 185 kt (204,000 st) valued at
Consumption
In 2013, about 40 percent or 74 kt (81,600 st) of the fire clay was sold or used for manufacturing bricks, lightweight aggregate and portland cement. The remainder was used for manufacturing fire brick, floor tile, pottery, refractory grogs, refractory mixes and mortars, saggers, wall tile and unspecified or unknown uses.
Price
The estimated average unit value of domestically produced fire clay in 2013 was
Foreign trade
Exports were estimated to be 109 kt (120,000 st) valued at
Imports of fire clay reported by the
Outlook
Sales and use of fire clay have been less than 200 kt (220,000 st) for the past two years, far less than the 320 kt (352,000 st) sold or used in 2009. Growth in overall global refractory markets was expected to increase through 2014, although growth in refractory brick and shapes markets was expected to lag behind those for monolithics. Sales of fire clay for refractory uses may remain unchanged in 2013 relative to 2012.
Fire clay also was used to manufacture heavy clay products, such as brick, cement and roofing tile. Sales of these products faced the same issues as common clay and shale, a dependence on increased activity in the private housing and commercial construction sectors to sustain increases in heavy clay markets. Residential and commercial construction expanded in 2012. Privately owned residential housing starts increased by 18 percent to 923,000 in 2013 compared with 781,000 in 2012. The annualized value of residential and nonresidential construction put in place increased by 5 percent to
FLUORSPAR
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World fluorspar demand was flat in 2013 reflecting sluggish world growth and reduced demand for white goods and cars. Acidspar prices were much reduced from the highs of 2011 and much of 2012, and this continues into 2014, while metspar prices have held steady. Nearly all fluorspar (CaF,) consumption in
Trade
In 2013, U.S. fluorspar imports totaled 642 kt (707,000 st), which included 512 kt (564.000 st) of acid-grade fluorspar (acidspar) and 130 kt (143,000 st) of metallurgical-grade fluorspar (metspar). This was an increase of 4 percent compared with 2012 import totals.
Leading imports, in descending order of quantity, were from
Consumption and uses
Apparent
Worldwide, the largest traditional markets for fluorspar are for the production of HF, A1F, and synthetic cryolite (both used in aluminum smelting) and in metallurgical applications (mainly steelmaking).
U.S. consumption of acidspar for production of HF (there is no U.S. production of A1F3) and nonmetallurgical uses (arc welding electrodes, enamels, fiberglass insulation, glass and portland cement) accounted for more than 90 percent of the total. The remainder was acidspar and metspar consumed in steelmaking and other metallurgical uses. The major end use for HF is in the manufacture of fluorocarbons used predominantly as refrigerants and as foamblowing agents. HF is also used in the production of fluoropolymers and fluoroelastomers, chemical derivatives, and for petroleum alkylation, uranium processing, stainless steel pickling and other diverse uses. In the electrolytic reduction and refining of aluminum, A IF, is used as a flux to improve efficiencies by lowering the melting point of the electrolyte mix and by suppressing sodium ions.
There has been a reduction in requirement for HF and some cutbacks in
World aluminum output increased despite closures in high energy cost countries like
World fluorspar demand overall remained unchanged in 2013 as a result of the continuing recession in much of
Prices
Overall worldwide acidspar prices weakened sharply while metspar prices held steady. According to
Industry news
In
In the
Elsewhere in
Canada Fluorspar announced the results of the preliminary feasibility study at its
UC Rusal, the world's leading producer of aluminum, announced in September that due to low grade ores it was mothballing its 120 kt/a (132.000 stpy)
In
Itends and outlook
The outlook for steel and aluminum remains strong but, for the chemical industry there remain some environmental concerns for the use of fluorine products most particularly in
With the continued sluggish overall world growth, demand is likely to continue to be met by current suppliers, acidspar prices are expected to remain flat, and there is little incentive for some of the potential new producers to swing into operation. *
FULLER'S EARTH
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Fuller's earth is a widely used commercial term referring to industrially versatile clay materials including palygorskite (attapulgite), sepiolite and Caand Mg-smectites. Most commercially exploitable deposits are formed in low-energy, marginal-marine environments or in brackish lakes. Although diverse in mineralogy and varied in depositional environments, all fuller's earth share certain physical and chemical characteristics, which endow them with exceptional absorption, adsorption, filtering, and/or decolorizing, or thixotropic properties. These versatile clays are, thus, ranked among the leading mineral commodities in total value for consumer and producer.
Fuller's earth is usually categorized as either gellant-grade (e.g., fillers, binders and thickeners) or absorbent-grade (e.g., pet waste and oil absorbents, fertilizer and pesticide carriers, and edible oils and grease filtration and processing).
Twelve companies in 11 states produced sorbent fuller's earth for
The
The demand for gellant-grade fuller's earth is linked to the fillers and binders supplied to the housing and drilling industries. Therefore, as the housing market recovers and the new U.S. oil boom continues, expect higher demand for gellant-grade fuller's earth. Despite the changing nature of the demands for sorbent-grade materials, the authors anticipate continued slow but steady growth in sorbent-grade uses as long as the U.S. manufacturing sector continues to strengthen and demand continues to increase in developing economies.
Although not precisely quantified, due to intermixing of palygorskite and sepiolite with Caand Mg-smectites sold as sorbent products, global fuller's earth production and consumption slightly increased to 3 Mt (3.3 million st) in 2013 from the final 2012 global estimate of 2.98 Mt (3.2 million st). Certain important producers do not report commodity information, which adds to the challenge in quantifying global production. Nonetheless, the total global market remains at about U.S.
U.S. production in 2013 rose to account for about 68 percent,
While the majority of global extraction is driven by the consumer market, the industrial, environmental and niche applications continue to gain market shares both in number and importance. As expected, markets in the developing world are demanding larger supplies of fuller's earth for use as agricultural carriers and fluid purification products.
Fuller's earth consumption in
There have been slow increases in U.S. fuller's earth production in the beginning of this decade due to two factors. The first is the slow but seemingly steady increase in manufacturing demands for sorbent products. The second is continued research leading to the development of new and specialized uses. In 2013, there were slight gains in U.S. production (Fig. 2), and these are expected to continue as the U.S. and global economies slowly strengthen. *
GEMSTONES
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The estimated value of natural gemstones produced from U.S. deposits during 2013 was
More than 60 varieties of gemstones have been produced from U.S. mines, but commercial mining of gemstones has never been extensively undertaken in
The commercial gemstone industry in
During 2013, each of the 50 states produced at least
Some states are known for the production of a single gem material, such as
The estimated value of U.S. laboratory-created gemstone production was
Consumption and uses
Although
The U.S. market for unset gem-quality diamond during 2013 was estimated to be about
Prices
Gemstone prices are governed by many factors and qualitative characteristics, including beauty, clarity, demand, durability, freedom from defects, perfection of cutting and rarity. Colored gemstone prices are generally influenced by market supplyand-demand considerations, and diamond prices are supported by producer controls on the quantity and quality of supply. Diamond pricing, in particular, is complex; values can vary significantly depending on time, place, and the subjective evaluations of buyers and sellers.
Imports and exports
During 2013, total U.S. gemstone trade (imports plus exports) with all countries and territories was about
Outlook
Overall demand for gem diamonds is expected to rise along with demand for other precious gems as the economy continues to recover from the recession and luxury purchases increase. Precious colored gemstone demand should increase as the popularity and acceptance of colored gemstones grow.
Independent diamond producers will continue to bring a greater measure of competition to global markets. Increased production and lower prices are expected to create greater competition.
More laboratory-created gemstones, simulants and treated gemstones continue to enter the marketplace. This will necessitate more transparent industry standards to maintain customer confidence.
Internet sales of diamonds, gemstones and jewelry increased during 2013, and they are expected to continue increasing in popularity, along with other forms of e-commerce that emerge to serve the diamond and gemstone industries. This use of e-commerce is expected to increase as the gemstone industry and its customers become more comfortable with and learn more about new e-commerce tools. *
Overall demand for gem diamonds is expected to rise along with demand for other precious gems as the economy continues to recover from the recession and luxury purchases increase. Precious colored gemstone demand should increase as the popularity and acceptance of colored gemstones grow.
GRAPHITE
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Graphite is elemental carbon that crystallizes in the hexagonal system as six-sided platelets. It occurs naturally. It is mined but can be made artificially from petroleum coke in the form of shapes (electrodes) and powders.
The major graphite prices, as given in Industrial Minerals, dropped substantially since
Total U.S. natural graphite imports for three Harmonized Tariff Schedules categories combined, were 61.3 kt (67,570 st) in 2013, compared with 56.7 kt (62,500 st) in 2012.
Recycling and environmental
There are no currently existing graphite mines or beneficiation plants in
However,
There are other such graphite deposits in
Developments
Even though crystalline flake prices have dropped precipitously from their
There are possible graphite operations elsewhere in the world, including some in
2014 outlook
Overall, 2014 natural graphite sales look likely to be up 5 percent from 2013, after 2013 sales had been down 10 percent from 2012.
Natural graphite (mostly flake) is used in aluminagraphite shapes, carbon-magnesite brick, plus some in crucibles, monolithics (i.e. gunning and ramming mixes) and other refractories. U.S. graphite demand in 2014 for use in the refractories end-use is likely to be on the same level as 2013. Graphite demand (sales) in 2013 was down 10 percent to 15 percent from 2012.
Natural graphite is used in graphite foil, expanded graphite and related items. U.S. graphite demand in 2014 for graphite foil and related items could be up 5 percent from 2013; 2013 demand was level with 2012.
Smaller end-uses of graphite include natural graphite used in brake linings, powdered metals, in foundry facings and steelmaking, plastics and rubber, and in lubricants. U.S. graphite demand in 2014 in these end uses could be up by 5 percent from 2013; 2013 demand was level to down 5 percent from 2012.
High-growth, large-volume end-uses include two prospects in the next five to 10 years for radically increased graphite usage: Li-ion batteries, which continues to look excellent but with caution needed, and the graphene (pure carbon in the form of a very thin, nearly transparent sheet) prospect, which is still difficult to evaluate. Considering known technology, any graphene will be made synthetically and not from natural (flake) graphite. Technical limitations and lack of feasibility are preventing any mass market usage in products.
High-growth, targe-volume end-uses include two prospects in the next five to 10 years for radically increased graphite usage: Li-ion batteries, which continues to look excellent but with caution needed, and the graphene (pure carbon in the form of a very thin, nearly transparent sheet) prospect, which is still difficult to evaluate. Considering known technology, any graphene will be made synthetically and not from natural (flake) graphite.
GYPSUM
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As a low-value, high-bulk commodity, normally mined in openpit operations from deposits widely distributed throughout the world, gypsum tended to be consumed within the many countries where it was produced. Less than 20 percent of the world's crude gypsum production was estimated to enter international trade. Only a few countries, such as
Approximately 27 Mt (29.8 million st) of gypsum was consumed in the manufacture of wallboard and plaster products, and 1.6 Mt (1.8 million st) for cement production and agricultural applications. Small amounts of high-purity gypsum were used for a range of industrial processes.
Demand for gypsum depends principally on the strength of the construction industry, particularly in
World gypsum reserves are large in major producing countries, but data for most are not available. Domestic gypsum resources are adequate but unevenly distributed. Synthetic gypsum, most of which is byproduct from coal-fired power plants, coupled with substantial imports from
Synthetic gypsum is important as a substitute for mined gypsum in wallboard manufacturing, cement production and agricultural applications (in descending order of tonnage). In 2013, synthetic gypsum accounted for about 43 percent of the total domestic gypsum supply.
Some of the more than 4 Mt (4.4 million st) of gypsum scrap that was generated by wallboard manufacturing, wallboard installation and building demolition was recycled. Recycled gypsum was used primarily for agricultural purposes and feedstock for the manufacture of new wallboard. Other markets for recycled gypsum include athletic field marking, cement production as a stucco additive, grease absorption, sludge drying and water treatment. *
HYDRAULIC FRACTURING SAND (FRAC SAND
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In last year's article review, it was noted that hydraulic fracturing sand (frac sand) enjoyed record growth as opposed to all other industrial sand in
According to the
The
Grain size is another important recommended specification. Generally speaking, there are some sizes more popular than others. The standard sieve designation #20-#40 is a popular size for the oil fracking. It is recommended, that 90 percent of the quartz sand grains fall between the #20 (0.84 mm) and the #40 (0.42 mm). Another popular size for oil fracking is the #30 (0.58 mm) - #50 (0.29 mm). For fracking gas, the #40 (0.42 mm) - #70 (0.21 mm) and the #70 (0.21 mm) - #140 (0.10 mm) are all sizes commonly used in the well stimulation industry. Other frac sand sizes are: #6 (3.36 mm) - #12 (1.68 mm), #8 (2.38 mm) - #16 (1.19 mm). #12 (1.68 mm) - #20 (0.84 mm), and #16 (1.19 mm) - #30 (0.59 mm).
Crush resistance is also very important. As the sand is "pumped down" the well, it is subjected to pressures of 4,000 psi or greater. The quartz grains must withstand breaking down and producing fines. Fines will fill in the opening between the individual grains of sand, causing less porosity, therefore flow.
Angular to subangular grain shapes will pack together and impurities such as feldspar, garnets, amphiboles and other minerals need to be limited because they break down under these pressures as well. Insipient fractures in the individual grain can cause weak grains, therefore, breaking down to fines. These impurities and grain shape characteristics may produce enough fines under pressure to not meet specifications. In many of the Cambrian sandstones, the amount of feldspars can cause low crush resistance. This mineral tends to break along cleavage lines and produce fines.
Other specifications such as acid solubility and turbidity are somewhat less important. Turbidity can be resolved at the processing plant during washing, and most fracking operations are done with minor amounts of acid base chemicals. Therefore, carbonates in the sand have little effect on the process. Years ago there were more acid base chemicals and carbonate content in the sand which diluted their performance. However, the API specifications for acid solubility still exist. If the sand is slightly above the specification, it still may be used.
The geology of deposits has much to do where frac sand is found and mined. As previously mentioned, the sand or sandstone must be almost entirely made of quartz. This eliminates most glacial and river deposits, as they contain other minerals that cannot be removed during processing. Greywacke and arkose sandstones cannot be used because of their mineral impurities and grain shape. As most specifications, whether construction aggregates or other industrial minerals, specifications are based on the material being used in a region or that particular industry. In this case, frac sand specifications were written based on two of the sandstones (sands) supplied to the well fracking industry. They were:
Other unconsolidated sand and sandstones are also mined for frac sand. Some of these deposits meet specifications while others have marginal qualities. They are
While exploration for new deposits continues, a few frac sand operations have been reported for sale. Preferred Sand, with operations in
Prices for frac sand products depend on product sizes, availability, quality, region and contracts. During 2013, prices were lower for most sizes and most were take-and-pay orders, without contracts. The latter half of 2013, fine sand, especially 100 mesh (70-140 mesh) was in demand to a point where there were reported shortages. This is completely different than years previous when producers could not give away 100-mesh product.
The 100-mesh sand is a poor proppant in laboratory tests. It is a better bridging agent and its performance in gas shale fracturing is undeniable. Its primary functions include blocking downward growth of fractures and wedging open natural fractures. Therefore, the 100mesh has been in great demand, so prices have increased in that size category. In 2013, the approximate free-onboard (f.o.b.) plant prices were 20/40 -
Generally, prices are negotiated by the supplier and consumer and kept in confidence. The total delivered price is not the fob price. In some cases, frac sand has become a value-added product. Some of the private transloading facilities are buying and storing sand, then reselling it to customers after increasing the price. In 2013, many more transloading facilities have come online from the major producers to private trucking firms to others.
Issues facing the industry are those similar to all surface and subsurface mines throughout the country. Air emissions of particulate matter are a substantial part of the permit process for the dry processing plant, and there may be wetland, ground water, endangered species as well as other environmental issues. Truck traffic is the major transportation mode and a major issue of this industry. Trucks are used to transport raw material to the plant, rail facilities and to the customer. Truck traffic is difficult to mitigate and generates many of the complaints for the producer. Most other environmental issues are mitigated to the satisfaction of the state, federal or local requirements. However, local opposition can cause significant delays in opening a new mine. This is still the case in
Health and safety is also an issue. One particular health issue that has dominated the industrial sand industry for decades is airborne silica. During the entire mining and processing steps, silica dust is emitted. Breathing silica particles has long been known to cause silicosis. As long as the problem existed, the industry has been proactive in mitigating this issue. Employees are required to wear protective clothes and are checked on a frequent basis for any health issues.
The future outlook is bright for frac sand. The well fracking industry keeps growing as well as the mine sites. According to industry personnel and independent reports, the need for frac sand will continue to increase in
Ceramic proppants and resin coated sand will most likely remain a small percentage of the frac sand market as long as natural sand can be used at low cost. These proppants are, for the most part, used in the fracking of deep wells for their strength under extreme pressures.
Significant new operations on line in 2013 were
INDUSTRIAL DIAMOND
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Estimated 2013 world production of natural and synthetic industrial diamond was about 4.45 billion carats. During 2013, natural industrial diamonds were produced in at least 12 countries, and synthetic industrial diamond was produced in at least 12 countries. About 97 percent of the combined natural and synthetic global output was produced in
During 2013,
Also in 2013, nine U.S. firms manufactured polycrystalline diamond (PCD) from synthetic diamond grit and powder. The U.S. government does not collect or maintain data for either domestic PCD producers or domestic chemical vapor deposition (CVD) diamond producers for quantity or value of annual production. Current trade and consumption quantity data are not available for PCD or for CVD diamond. For these reasons, PCD and CVD diamond are not included in the industrial diamond quantitative data reported here.
An estimated 36.8 million carats of used industrial diamond, valued at
Since its introduction in the mid-1980s, CVD diamond has seen strong growth. The global market value of industrial diamond and diamond-like films and coatings was estimated to have been
Early applications for CVD diamond focused largely around thinand thick-film PCD for cutting tools and dressing applications due to the mechanical properties of diamond. Newer applications that use CVD diamond's mechanical properties include wear parts, such as watch gears and chemical mechanical polishing pad conditioners. CVD diamond is being used in microelectronic components, such as highspeed processors, medical devices, wide bandgap radio frequency (RF) and power conversion devices, and opto-electronic devices (LEDs, laser diodes) that generate exceptionally high heat densities that require innovative approaches to thermal management.
Historically, diamond has been perceived as an expensive material. Advances in CVD diamond manufacturing, like the development of microwave carbon plasma technology and the development of higher-throughput hot filament (HF) CVD diamond reactors, have significantly reduced diamond costs. This has led many industries to revisit development activities and pursue the use of CVD diamond for a growing number of applications.
During 2013, one U.S. company was developing projects using single-crystal CVD diamond materials in high-voltage power switches, lasers, quantum communications and computing, and water treatment and purification. These projects could translate into
Consumption
The major domestic industries that consume industrial diamond are construction, machinery manufacturing, mining services (drilling), oil and gas exploration (drilling), stone cutting and polishing, and transportation systems (infrastructure and vehicles). Stone cutting and highway building and repair together made up the largest demand for industrial diamond. During 2013, about 97 percent of the industrial diamond market used synthetic industrial diamonds because the diamond quality can be controlled and properties can be customized to fit specific requirements.
Prices
Pricing of natural diamond was driven up by strong demand at auctions held in all of the global diamond centers. This has affected prices of industrial diamond as well as gemstone diamond. These price increases were a reflection of strong demand for the whole range of rough diamonds for industrial markets.
Natural and synthetic industrial diamonds differ significantly in price. Natural industrial diamond normally has a more limited range of values, from about
Prices of synthetic diamond vary according to size, shape, crystallinity and the absence or presence of metal coatings. In general, prices for synthetic diamond for grinding and polishing range from as low as
During 2013, U.S. imports of all types of industrial diamond had an average value of
Imports and exports
During 2013,
U.S. imports of industrial-quality diamond stones (natural and synthetic) were about 2.33 million carats, valued at about
Outlook
Demand for synthetic diamond grit and powder is expected to remain greater than that for natural diamond material. Constant-dollar prices of synthetic diamond products, including CVD diamond films, will probably continue to decline as production technology becomes more cost effective. The decline is even more likely if competition from low-cost producers in
INDUSTRIAL GARNET
by
Garnet has been used as a gemstone since the Bronze Age. However, garnet's angular fractures, relatively high hardness and specific gravity, chemical inertness and nontoxicity make it ideal for many industrial applications. It is also free of crystalline silica and can be recycled.
Garnet is the general name given to a group of complex silicate minerals, all with an isometric crystal structure and similar properties and chemical compositions. Higher quality industrial garnet is used as a loose grain abrasive because of its hardness. Lower quality industrial garnet is used as a filtration medium because it is relatively inert and resists chemical degradation. Garnet is also beginning to be used as an oil and gas reservoir fracturing proppant or mixed with other proppants when high temperature effects are encountered or in very deep formations.
Production
In 2013, U.S. production of crude garnet concentrate for industrial use was estimated to be 47 kt (52,000 st), valued at about
Garnet for industrial use was mined in 2013 by four firms: one in
Total world industrial garnet production was estimated to be about 1.7 Mt (1.9 million st).
Consumption
In 2013,
The major end uses for garnet in
Estimated worldwide end-use market shares are abrasive blasting media, 50 percent; waterjet cutting, 30 percent; water filtration, 10 percent and other end uses, 10 percent.
Prices
Industrial garnet's price depends on application, quality, quantity purchased, source and type and, therefore, encompasses a range of prices. During 2013, domestic values for crude concentrates for different applications ranged from about
The domestic values for refined garnet for different applications sold during the year ranged from
Foreign trade
The garnet market is very competitive. Lower priced foreign imports slowly began displacing U.S. production in domestic markets during the 1990s. In 2013,
U.S. imports and exports in 2013 were estimated to be 155 kt (170,000 st) and 15.1 kt (166,000 st), respectively. The level of imports decreased by 7 percent from 2012, and exports increased by 4 percent, compared with 2012.
Outlook
In recent years,the garnet industry has encountered higher production costs and tighter profit margins, which resulted in the loss of noncompetitive producers. To increase profitability and remain competitive with foreign imported material, production may be restricted to only high-grade garnet ores or those deposits that contain other salable mineral products, such as kyanite, marble, mica minerals, sillimanite, staurolite, wollastoniteor metallic ores.
Worldwide industrial garnet demand is expected to continue to increase, with the highest growth in markets for waterjet cutting and blasting. *
IODINE
by
In 1811, French chemist
Elemental iodine, a bluish-black, crystalline solid with submetallic luster, has a specific gravity of 4.93, and volatilizes (sublimates) at ordinary room temperatures into a blue-violet gas that has an irritating odor. Iodine is the least active of the halogens, all of which readily displace it. Only slightly soluble in water, iodine dissolves in alcohol, carbon disulfide, carbon tetrachloride and chloroform, giving a deep violet solution. The only stable isotope of iodine is 1127, although 37 isotopes are known to exist.
Two primary sources of iodine production are subsurface brines associated with petroleum and natural gas deposits, and as a byproduct from nitrate deposits in Chilean desert caliche. The largest source of iodine, however, is seawater, which contains 0.05 ppm, or about 31 Mt (34 million st). Seaweed of the family Laminaria can extract and accumulate up to 0.45 percent iodine on a dry basis. Seaweed was an important source of iodine prior to 1959. Seaweed remains a significant source of iodine in the diets of many populations throughout the world.
Production
Chilean iodine production was estimated at 17 kt (19,040 st) for 2013; reporting Chilean iodine production at 18 kt (20,130 st) for 2012.
The remaining 6 percent of worldwide iodine production (exclusive of U.S. production), in descending order, comes from
Operations
Tight supplies and increased demand - particularly due to panic purchasing of potassium iodide (KI) tablets as an anti-radiation measure after the
In
AFC Minera, another Chilean iodine producer, expanded its capacity at its Algorta Norte project in
Domestic production
Four companies operating in
Woodward Iodine, near the city of
North American Brine Resources operates one miniplant outside of
The iodine produced in
In
Consumption
The USGS reported imports for consumption, crude content, of iodine in
Major uses of iodine on a worldwide basis include X-ray contrast media; liquid crystal displays (LCD) polarizing film applications; iodophors; chemicals; organics; pharmaceuticals; human nutrition and animal feed; nylon production; and others. Iodophors are used in a variety of antiseptics, biocides, and disinfectants in medical and agricultural applications. Iodine is used as an important catalyst in the production of various chemical intermediates.
Developing nations, such as
Demand
One of the major reasons for the high demand for iodine in 2012 was the continued panic purchasing of KI (potassium iodide) pills after the
The demand for iodine still increased in several traditional applications such as a catalyst in the chemicals industry,particularly in acetic acid production. Acetic acid is used as a solvent in terephthalic acid used in the production of carbonated soft drink containers. The largest market for acetic acid is in the production of vinyl acetate.
Increased demand for iodine as a disinfectant and in water treatment increased as developing nations expanded treatment of water supplies.
With a large percentage of the population of industrialized nations (
Prices
The price for iodine at the beginning of 2013 was
The continued demand for iodine should increase at a more moderate 2 percent to 4 percent pace in 2014. Prices should remain stable after adjustments in production (less) and supply (high) take place. Some predictions of a slow economic recovery suggest that, although iodine demand will continue in 2014, prices will remain stable as long as production rates decrease from those of 2013.
Substitutes
Bromine and chlorine could substitute for iodine in biocides, colorants and inks. But in most categories, they are considered inadequate. Iodine cannot be replaced in some pharmaceuticals, catalytic uses, and human and animal nutrition. Antibiotics and boron also may substitute for iodine as biocides. The sustained high prices for iodine, however, may provide the impetus for discovering new iodine substitutes and resurrecting older ones. One example is the collaboration between
Research at
Other Issues
Nutrition researchers at the ETH Zurich, in collaboration with the
As a consequence to the seriousness of IDD and its deleterious effects on pregnant women and fetal development and children in developed nations, the governments of
Other research reported in 2013 from the University of
Scientists at the
Researchers at the
A
Scientists from the RIKEN Byon Initiative Research Unit of
A NASA Small Spacecraft Technology Award was given to
KAOLIN
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Seventeen companies mined kaolin in nine states in 2013. Production, on the basis of preliminary data, was estimated to be 5.95 Mt (6.56 million st) valued at
Consumption
U.S. sales or use of kaolin decreased slightly in 2013. Sales to the paper industry were estimated to be 35 percent of domestic sales, 77 percent of export sales, and 48 percent of total sales. Other leading markets for kaolin (domestic and export sales combined) were refractory products (12 percent), paint (6 percent), catalysts and fiberglass (4 percent each) and rubber (3 percent). Smaller markets for kaolin were brick, ceramic floor and wall tile, chemicals, electrical porcelain, fine china, portland cement, pottery, roofing granules and sanitaryware. As a filler and extender, kaolin was sold for adhesives, animal feed, asphalt emulsions, cosmetics, fertilizers, pesticides, pharmaceuticals and plastics.
Industry news and Issues
With growing demand for proppants used in hydraulic fracturing for increased gas and oil production,
Prices
The average unit value of U.S. kaolin production was
Foreign trade
About 276 kt (304,000 st) of kaolin valued at
World review
World production was 37 Mt (40.8 million st) in 2013, a slight increase from 2011. The amount of processed kaolin sold or used was estimated to be between 24 and 26 Mt (26.5 and 28.7 million st) in 2013.
In the
Outlook
The kaolin industry has not had an extended period of growth for the past 24 years. A little less than 50 percent of kaolin sales were for the paper market; competition from calcium carbonate as a paper coating and filler and the general downturn in the U.S. paper industry for the past five to seven years resulted in a decline in sales to the domestic paper market. Exports of kaolin to foreign paper markets, particularly in
The
Kaolin also is sold for construction-related products, such adhesives, brick, caulk, electrical porcelain, fiberglass, floor and wall tile, joint compounds, paint, portland cement, roofing granules, rug backings and sanitaryware. The
In 2013. economic growth in many European countries remained low, and economic growth in several Asian countries remained lower than in the five years prior to 2011. Because these countries were significant importers of kaolin, export sales of kaolin may increase only slightly in 2014. *
LIME
by Lime production is the leading chemical use for limestone and dolomite. The term "lime" in this review refers to high calcium and dolomitic quicklime, their hydroxide forms and dead-burned dolomite. Lime is also reacted with water to produce calcium hydroxide (hydrated lime. Type N hydrate. Type S hydrate), and high calcium lime can also be reacted with carbon dioxide (CO,) to make precipitated calcium carbonate. Lime is produced in rotary kilns and vertical shaft kilns, mostly fired with coal or natural gas. In the process, limestone is heated to high temperatures causing carbon dioxide (CO,) to be liberated from the calcium carbonate (CaCO.) and magnesium carbonate (MgCO,) in dolomite, resulting in calcium oxide and magnesium oxide. Lime has many industrial uses. In the metallurgical industries, lime is used as a fluxing agent in the manufacture of steel, as well as a foaming agent in slag, and works to protect the refractory. Between 22.7 to 54.4 kg (50 to 120 lbs) of high calcium and dolomitic lime are consumed in the production of one ton of steel. In the nonferrous metal industries, high calcium lime is used in ore flotation for pH control. Lime also has several environmental uses including the removal of sulfur dioxide (SO,) and hydrochloric acid (HCL) in wet and dry scrubbing of industrial gases. Lime is the leading treatment chemical in drinking water applications. It is also used in the treatment of waste water, biosolid sludge, leaching of metals, neutralization of acidic mine water and is emerging as a treatment for animal waste. High calcium lime is also precipitated by reaction with carbon dioxide to form precipitated calcium carbonate (PCC), an innovative product that is primarily used as a filler and coating in the manufacture of alkaline paper products. PCC is also used in the manufacture of paints, polymers and in the healthcare industry in the manufacture of antacids and calcium supplements. Finally, lime is also used in soil stabilization and asphalt paving applications, the manufacture of refractories, by various food industries and the manufacture of other chemicals. Production and prices In 2013, U.S. quicklime and hydrate production was estimated to be 19 Mt (21 million st), an increase of less than 1 percent from 2012. Lime and hydrate pricing increased less than 1 percent in 2013, reversing a trend of annual price increases during the past 10 years. Lime exports increased 23 percent in 2013 to 259.5 kt (286,000 st). Lime imports were 399.3 kt (440,000 st). Most of the lime imports came from Lime was produced at approximately 76 plants in Regulatory outlook The lime industry continues to monitor There has been no announcement regarding the issuance of a revised MACT standard for the lime industry at this time. * LITHIUM by In 2013, estimated world lithium consumption was about 30 kt (33,000 st) of lithium contained in minerals and compounds, a 6-percent increase from 2012. Estimated U.S. consumption was about 2 kt (2,200 st) of contained lithium, the same as that of 2012. U.S. imports of lithium compounds in 2013 were 11.9 kt (13,100 st), a decrease of 20 percent, compared with 2012. Import sources of lithium chemicals were The two dominant sources of lithium are brines and hard rock deposits. Essentially, the same lithium compounds can be produced from either type of deposit, but owing to lower costs typically required to produce lithium compounds from brine deposits, as compared with those from hard rock ores, brines became the main source for lithium compound production at the end of the 1990s. Owing to growing lithium concentrate demand from In Rockwood Lithium and FMC are the world's leading producers of downstream lithium chemicals, with U.S. operations in Consulting firm Although traditional markets are still dominant to the lithium industry, batteries have rapidly gained importance because lithium-ion batteries are used extensively in portable electronic devices. In addition, lithium-ion batteries are being used increasingly in portable electric tools, hybrid-electric vehicles (HEV), plug-in hybrid-electric vehicles (PHEV), electric vehicles (EV) and grid storage applications. New developments in lithium battery technology, including the use of nanotechnology that enables very fast charging for rechargeable lithium, have potential for significant growth. Widespread use of lithium-ion batteries in HEVs, PHEVs and EVs could create high demand for lithium chemicals in the near future. From 2000 to 2013, consumption of lithium for nonbattery uses also increased, but at lower rates. In response to future lithium consumption increases, brine operations are expected to be able to expand production capacity relatively quickly to increase supply. Lithium markets became very competitive when SQM entered the market in 1998, and it has been difficult to obtain consistent price information since that time. Producers negotiate with consumers on an individual basis and contract price information typically is not reported. Lithium prices, however, are thought to have remained flat during 2013 owing to the balanced increase in worldwide lithium consumption and production. Many companies continued exploring for lithium, with numerous claims in Lithium supply security has become a top priority for Asian technology companies. Strategic alliances and joint ventures have been, and continue to be, established with lithium exploration companies to ensure a reliable, diversified supply of lithium for Substitutes for lithium compounds and metal are possible in glass, ceramics, greases and batteries. Examples are sodic and potassic fluxes in ceramics and glass manufacture; calcium and aluminum soaps as substitutes for stearates in greases; and calcium, magnesium, mercury and zinc as anode material in primary batteries. Lithium is preferred to these potential substitutes, however, because lithium's physical and chemical properties make it the superior material for most of its applications. Lithium supply security has become a top priority for Asian technology companies. Strategic alliances and joint ventures have been, and continue to be, established with lithium exploration companies to ensure a reliable, diversified supply of lithium for MAGNESIUM COMPOUNDS by Magnesium oxide is the largest magnesium compound by tonnage consumed in MgO can be further classified by being natural or synthetic. Natural refers to the calcination of magnesite (MgC03) to form MgO that has purity in the 92-percent to 97-percent range. The majority of synthetic magnesia tonnage is produced by the precipitation of brine or seawater using calcitic or dolomitic lime to form magnesium hydroxide, which is then calcined to generate magnesia with 96 percent to 98.5 percent purity. There are two other synthetic manufacturing techniques to produce purity more than 99 percent, the Aman and Pattinson processes. In the Aman process, magnesium chloride is calcined to form insoluble MgO and the soluble salts like calcium chloride are removed by washing. In the Pattinson process, magnesia is carbonated under high pressure to form soluble magnesium bicarbonate solution and the impurities are removed by filtration. Deadbumed and fused magnesium oxides The largest single application, 53 percent by tonnage, for any grade of magnesium oxide is refractories for which steel production is the major use. Deadbumed magnesia (DBM) and fused magnesia (FM) are used to make bricks that line steel furnaces and are added into gunning compounds that repair and extend the life of the brick linings. Steel production consumes about 5 kg (11 lbs) of magnesium oxide per ton of steel. There are small applications for DBM in ceramics, leather tanning and phosphate cements. Fused magnesia outperforms DBM in some refractory applications where its higher purity, higher density and larger crystal size are advantages. FM has the unique property of being an electrical insulator but also a thermal conductor. For this reason, fused magnesia is widely used in sheathed electrical heating elements. The sole U.S. producer of fused magnesia, UCM Magnesia in Domestic steel production in 2013 increased 2.6 percent from 2012 to 88.7 Mt (98 million st). Steel demand is expected to grow slightly in 2014. A major use for North American steel is for light vehicles for which production exceeded 16 million units in 2013,5 percent more than in 2012. Light vehicle demand is expected to increase by 4 percent in 2014. There is a continuing shift worldwide away from a heavy dependency on Chinese raw materials to a more diversified sourcing, an effort to assure reliability in supply and more predictable cost. The published U.S. imports of DBM and FM totaled 215 kt (237,000 st) down 27 percent from 2012 and 44 percent from 2011. However, based on steel and light vehicle production, imports should have been closer to the previous two years. In 2012, Chinese steel mills are currently using 23 kg (50 lbs) of total refractories per ton of steel and have announced a goal to reduce consumption by 2016 to 15 kg (33 lbs), closer to the world class standard. The utilization rate for Chinese steel mills was only 72 percent in 2013, which is hurting profits. The government has decided to close less efficient mills to improve profits and reduce energy demand and pollution. Both moves will significantly lessen the demand for raw materials used in refractories. Grecian Magnesite and the UCM Magnesia division of Reactive magnesium oxide In 2013, there were two major domestic producers of reactive grades of magnesia: Martin Marietta using the brine precipitation using dolomitic lime route and The one CCM application that is growing worldwide is in hydrometallurgy for cobalt and nickel. CCM, in particular synthetic magnesia, increases the yield and concentration of metal hydroxides, compared with lime and other alkalis. Domestic CCM production in 2013 was 152 kt (167,500 st), about 2 percent less than in 2012. Imports in 2013 increased by 16 percent to 133 kt/a ( 146,600 st), compared with 2012. Kumis Kutahya Manyesit acquired BonMag in Magnesium hydroxide The fastest growing magnesium chemical is magnesium hydroxide. The estimated production for 2013 was 190 to 200 kt (209,000 to 220,000 st), up about 5 percent from 2012. The majority of the tonnage was for aqueous slurry. The growth of magnesium hydroxide slurry may account for the slow growth for CCM, because it is easier to meter slurry than to accurately feed a powder into a reactor at the end users' locations. Depending on the manufacturer, the aqueous suspension contains 45 percent to 62 percent Mg(OH), by weight. Three different processes are used to manufacture the slurry: * Brine/seawater precipitation by calcitic lime or dolomitic lime: Martin Marietta ( * Slaking caustic-calcined magnesite: Premier Magnesia ( * Suspending brucite (Mg(OH)2): Garrison Minerals ( There can be significant differences in performance among the slurries depending on the manufacturer. Companies that slaked CCM or suspend naturally occurring brucite have multiple production locations to serve the market. Magnesium hydroxide is competitive against caustic soda in terms of performance and costs. Being a mild alkali, magnesium hydroxide is relatively safe to handle, compared with caustic soda, and does not require hazardous warnings by the Specialty grades of magnesium hydroxide are used in demanding applications like antacids, nutraceuticals and as a flame retardant in wire and cable coatings. These applications required higher purity and specific physical properties to function properly. Imports of magnesium hydroxide in 2013 were 5.7 kt (6,280 st), an increase of 7 percent from 2012. Imports were mostly consumed in high-end applications like pharmaceuticals and as flame retardants in wire and cable. Magnesium chloride The major commercial magnesium chloride producers include The principal uses for magnesium chloride are for dust control/road stabilization and deicing. Magnesium chloride is hygroscopic and its solution is sprayed on dirt/gravel roads to reduce dust by absorbing moisture. Frequently, magnesium chloride solution, 30 percent by weight, is added to the roads prior to a snow/ice event to prevent an ice layer from forming. Anticorrosive agents are frequently added to the solution. Magnesium chloride is reported to function as low as -150° C (-238° F) as compared to -90° C (-130° F) for sodium chloride. Due to its relatively high cost, as compared to other deicers, its market potential is probably limited to more specialized applications. There is a small amount of chemical uses such as in textiles, oxychloride cements and artificial seawater for aquariums. One U.S. company employs the electrolysis process on magnesium chloride to produce magnesium metal. Imports of magnesium chloride in 2013 were down 13 percent to 48 kt (53,000 st), compared with 2012 due to a relatively mild winter. MICA by The mica group represents 34 different phyllosilicate minerals that exhibit a layered or platy structure. Commercially important mica minerals are muscovite and phlogopite. Muscovite is the principal mica used. It is more abundant and has a white color and better electrical properties. Phlogopite, a magnesium iron mica, is more temperature stable. It is used in applications where a combination of high heat stability and electrical properties is required. The uses of mica are divided into two sectors - scrap and flake, and sheet. Scrap and flake is the larger sector by a large margin. Production and consumption Sheet mica. Sheet mica comprises block and splittings. Splittings are built up into sheet. U.S. consumption during 2012 was 285 t (314 st), up from 271 t (299 st) in 2011. These products had a high unit value of $l,720/t ( Most sheet products used in World production of sheet mica products in 2011 was about 5.2 kt (5,730 st), with Scrap, flake and powder. Muscovite and phlogopite are used in sheet and ground forms. Ground muscovite is further divided into wetand dry-ground products. In 2012, world production of mined mica, mostly muscovite, was about 1.1 Mt (1.2 million st), the same as in 2011. In In Canadian production of brown phlogopite mica is believed to be about 25 kt to 30 kt (27,500 to 33,000 st), based on U.S. production U.S. mine production of scrap and flake mica in 2012 was estimated to be 47.5 kt (52,000 st), down from 52 kt (57,300 st) in 2011. The peak year for mica production was 2006 (110 kt or 121,000 st). The drop is probably due to the downturn in construction and automobile production. The average value for mine scrap and flake in 2012 was Scrap and flake mica were processed to produce an estimated 78.5 kt (86,500 st) of ground mica in 2012, compared to 80.4 kt (88,600 st) in 2011. After processing, the value increases. Dry grinding increased the average value of the scrap from North American producers In 2012, muscovite mica was mined by eight companies in five states with the largest amount mined in The same companies, operated nine grinding plants - six dry ground and three wet ground facilities. The three wet grinders were: The principal dry grinders were: Georgia Industrial Minerals, US Gypsum, Phlogopite mica Phlogopite mica is produced commercially in The balance of Suzorite exports goes to Phlogopite is also produced as a byproduct of apatite mining by New and developing sources of mica Large crystals of mica are reported in U.S. imports of mica U.S. imports of mica powders and waste started to drop after 2006, due to the economic downturn, particularly in the construction and automotive sectors. In 2012, imports were down to 26 kt (28,600 st) from the high of 45 kt (49,000 st) in 2006, but showed recovery over imports of 18 kt (20,000 st) in 2009. A total of 24.3 kt (26,800 st) of 2011 imports were in the form of powders. A large portion of the imported mica was phlogopite flake and powders coming from Suzorite exports to A total of 6.2 kt (6,800 st) of mica, mostly powderswith an average value of U.S. exports of mica U.S. exports of mica powder in 2012 totaled 5.8 kt (6,400 st). with a value of $l,371/t ( In 2011, the largest importers of U.S. mica powders were End uses In 2012.69 percent (42.6 kt or 47,000 st) of ground mica was used in gypsum wallboard joint compound as a filler and extender. It provides a smoother consistency, improved workability and crack prevention. The paint industry used 21.3 percent (16.7 kt or 18,400 st) of the ground mica production as a pigment extender. It also facilitates suspension due to its relatively low specific gravity and platy morphology. The ground mica also reduces checking and chalking, and prevents shrinkage and peeling of the paint film. It also provides increased resistance to water penetration and weathering, and brightens the tone of colored pigments. Wet ground mica is preferred for use in paint. About 14 percent (11 kt or 12,000 st) of total mica consumption, was used in the well-drilling industry in 2012 as an additive to drilling fluids. This is up from 9 percent in 2010 - probably due to the upsurge in well drilling in About 2.7 percent (2.1 kt (2,300 st) of ground muscovite mica consumption in 2012 was used to reinforce plastics, mainly for automotive uses. The phlogopite mica imports used mainly in plastics needs to be added for automotive uses. Mica adds strength, stiffness, temperature resistance and dimensional stability and it reduces permeability to gases and liquids. It does this while maintaining a smooth, glossy surface unlike its competitor, glass and fibers. These properties are particularly enhanced when the mica is well delaminated into high-aspect-ratio grades and is treated with adhesion-enhancing chemicals such as silanes. Mica is used in nonstructural parts, such as glove boxes, heater ducts and housings, in wraparound fenders, fascias and cargo boxes. About 4 kt (4,400 st) of wet ground mica are used as the base for pearlescent pigments. The 60-mesh mica flakes imported from But it is difficult to get a uniform supply of high whiteness muscovite. Synthetic mica Synthetic mica is made by fusing a mixture of minerals containing potassium, magnesium and silicon. The source minerals are selected for purity, especially freedom from iron and other elements that give color. Synthetic mica was developed in the 1950s as a pure mica, free from combined moisture, for electronic applications. Youjia Pearlescent Mica Co of Chinese synthetic mica sells as low as These pigments are used in cosmetics, plastics packaging and automotive coatings. Use in automotive plastics is expected to grow with the replacement of automotive coatings by self-colored plastic exterior body parts. Chinese sources mention the use of synthetic mica paper in fireproof belts. These were required by Chinese regulations during the 1990s as the fireproof and insulating layer for fireproof cable. This market had already grown to 1 kt (1,100 st) in 2013. With increasing concern in the West about fireproofing buildings and cars, this could develop into a major market. Other uses Large flake mica is also used in sound proofing and vibration damping applications, especially in the automotive industry. The mica is dispersed in an asphalt or urethane polymer and is applied to the back side of carpeting and to metal surface under the vehicle and in the trunk. The rubber industry uses ground mica as inert filler and as mold lubricant to manufacture molded rubber products, including tires. Low-value, impure ground mica is used to produce rolled roofing and asphalt shingles. In this application, it serves as inert filler and as a surface-coating lubricant to prevent sticking to adjacent surfaces. Other minor uses of ground mica include decorative coatings on wallpaper and on concrete, stucco and tile surfaces. It is also used as an ingredient in some special greases and as a coating for cores and molds in casting metal and alloys. It is also used as a flux coating on welding rods. Electrical mica usage has been static for many years because of competition from more cost-effective plastics. Mica is only needed for high temperature applications. Synthetic fluorphlogopite mica is more effective, but it also costs more. In plastics, mica faces competition from glass fibers, wollastonite, talc and the new organoclays. Mica has been shown not to be a health risk, whereas finer glass fibers are reported to be hazardous. Holds The companies that produce mica are being acquired by large minerals producers/traders and financial groups. There is speculation that industrial minerals are underpriced when compared to metals, and that these acquisitions presage increases in prices. Mica depends heavily on the construction and transportation industries. Both have been in the doldrums, but there are signs of recovery. Automobile production has moved to The housing industry will recover eventually, and this is not in great danger of competition from imports. Imported wallboard from Prices of polymers have escalated due to the high price of oil. High volume polymers like polypropylene (PP) now sell for Typically, in the 1980s, PP sold for Use of mica in plastics is growing faster in NITROGEN by LE. Apodaca, Ammonia was produced by 13 companies at 28 plants in 15 states during 2013. About 60 percent of total U.S. ammonia production capacity was centered in U.S. production was estimated to be 8.7 Mt (9.6 million st) of nitrogen (N) content in 2013, compared with 8.73 Mt (9.62 million st) of N content in 2012. Apparent consumption was estimated to have decreased by 2 percent, to 13.5 Mt (14.9 million st) from 13.9 Mt (15.3 million st) of N in 2012.The Approximately 84 percent of apparent domestic ammonia consumption was for fertilizer use, including anhydrous ammonia for direct application, urea, ammonium nitrates, ammonium phosphates and other nitrogen compounds. Ammonia also was used to produce plastics, synthetic fibers and resins, explosives and numerous other chemical compounds. Imports of ammonia of N content decreased by 4 percent, from 5.2 Mt (5.7 million st) in 2012 to 5 Mt (5.5 million st) in 2013. U.S. ammonia exports increased sixfold to 196 kt (216,000 st) of N from 2012 to 2013. Ammonia exports were primarily shipped to Natural gas is often used as the feedstock to produce nitrogen fertilizers. The cost of natural gas can account for 70 to 90 percent of the production costs. The Henry Hub spot natural gas price ranged between A long period of stable and low natural gas prices in According to 10-year projections by the Increased cropland availability (resulting from the reduction in the allowable acreage enrolled in the Conservation Reserve Program), demand and sustained high commodity prices were expected to keep projected U.S. cropland use at the same level. Corn, soybeans, and wheat were expected to account for about 89 percent of acreage utilization for the eight major field crops. Overall com acreage in PEAT by LE. Apodaca, In 2013, domestic production of peat, excluding Peat is a natural organic material of botanical origin. Peatlands are situated predominately in shallow wetland areas of the Northern Hemisphere. Commercial deposits are formed from the incomplete decomposition of plant matter under anaerobic conditions and a gradual accumulation of peat over about a 5,000-year period. In 2013, peat was harvested in 12 states, with At least 60 percent of all peat used in General soil improvement and potting soil mixes were the leading domestic end-use categories, accounting for about 90 percent of domestic peat sales, according to the annual The number of peat producers in Peatlands also are used for agriculture, forestry, recreation and wildlife management. Factors such as the growing interest in gardening, golf course development and landscaping related to residential use indicate that peat usage should remain near current levels for the next several years. However, U.S. producers face increasing competition from imports of peat from Peatlands have been identified as carbon sinks, storing more carbon per hectare than any other ecosystem. Preservation and restoration of peatlands may become a high priority in the efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, further restricting its availability for commercial use in future years. Peatland restoration is growing in importance in The number of peat producers in PERLITE by Domestic consumption and production and imports of crude processed perlite in The estimated amount of processed perlite sold or used from U.S. mines in 2013 fell to 376 kt (414.400 st) from the downwardly revised total of 396 kt (436.500 st) sold or used in 2012. U.S. consumption of crude processed perlite decreased for the second straight year from the recent high of 577 kt (636,000 st) in 2011 (Table 1). The annual consumption figure for 2013 is estimated to be 472 kt (520,300 st), slightly more than the recent low year of 2009 when only 468 kt (515.900 st) were consumed in Crude perlite ore was processed in Exports, mainly to Processed ore was expanded by 26 companies at 48 plants in 27 states. However, the number of plants that expand perlite has dropped considerably during the recent recessionary period from 61 in 2006. Not all of the closed plants were permanently shuttered, and some may reopen with an improved economy and with rising demand. In 2013. the leading seven companies produced about 80 percent of the total. The principal end uses for expanded perlite were building construction products, 53 percent: fillers, 15 percent; horticultural aggregate, 14 percent; filter aid, 10 percent and other, including unspecified, 8 percent. The average unit value of expanded perlite in 2013 was around Although production levels of perlite in several countries are not widely reported, approximately two-thirds of global production of perlite is thought to be concentrated in Perlite consumption is closely related to construction activity, and therefore, sustained low levels of construction activity can result in lower perlite consumption. Although preliminary data indicated that perlite consumption decreased by 7 percent in 2013. the decrease in the most applicable construction segments (commercial, education, health care, lodging and office) decreased only slightly in 2013 compared with 2012, according to the U. Expanded perlite production costs are closely related to energy costs, and increased fuel costs lead to expanded perlite price increases. Increased prices could lead to some reduction in perlite consumption, as consumers consider scaling back perlite use or using alternative lightweight materials if such materials are found to function satisfactorily in traditional perlite markets. However, no other lightweight materials have the brilliant white color of perlite, and this property helps to maintain perlite's dominance in its primary markets. PHOSPHATE ROCK by U.S. marketable phosphate rock production for the 2013 crop year ( As in previous calendar years, Calendar year 2013 U.S. phosphate production increased by 1.1 Mt (1.2 million st). However, companies added to stocks of phosphate rock by 1.88 Mt (2.1 million st). Late in calendar year 2013, sales of phosphate products were reported to be weaker than earlier in the year. In calendar year 2013, Imports/exports There were no reported U.S. exports of phosphate rock in crop year 2013, nor have there been any reported exports of phosphate rock since crop year 2004. U.S. producers continue to prefer to export the higher value fertilizer products, such as monoammonium (MAP) and diammonium phosphates (DAP), in preference to phosphate rock. Importation of phosphate rock in crop year 2013 is estimated by the Uses The manufacturing of fertilizers and the production of animal feed supplements account for more than 95 percent of phosphate rock consumption. The rest of the production was used to produce elemental phosphorus, defluorinated phosphate rock or was used for direct application to the soil. Major fertilizers include DAP, MAP and triple super phosphate (TSP). The balance is used in a variety of products, such as vitamins, pharmaceuticals, soft drinks, toothpaste, flame retardants, glass, photographic film and other consumer goods. There is no natural or synthetic substitute for phosphorous, which is essential for life in all growing things - plants and animals. There currently is no economical alternative to phosphate rock as the major source of phosphorous. Prices The average value of phosphate rock produced at the mines in crop year 2013 increased slightly over the 2012 crop year prices. The 2013 crop year average price of Prices continued to fall and at the end of calendar year 2013, Moroccan phosphate rock prices were at a low of Industry news One U.S. phosphate rock producer has acquired the phosphate assets of the only other remaining phosphate producer in the A new underground mine is currently under development in southeastern The world capacity to produce phosphate rock is expected to continue to increase as a result of other phosphate mine expansion projects. Active exploration and feasibility studies of the potential for development of phosphate deposits worldwide are ongoing in In crop year 2013 and calendar year 2013, U.S. phosphate production had recovered from the recession of 2008. However, softening of prices and declining prices were experienced, with stable or declining demand for fertilizer products at the end of calendar year 2013. But there does appear to be the beginning of a recovery in 2014, with increasing prices for phosphate and fertilizer chemicals (Fig. 3). Environmental, regulatory, reclamation issues About 16,188 ha (40,000 acres) of In Itends and outlook The worldwide demand for phosphate fertilizers is expected to increase gradually in proportion to the increase in world population. The phosphate industry appears to have generally recovered from the worldwide downturn that began in 2008-2009. However, in 2012 and 2013, the rate of recovery slowed and prices dropped in the fourth quarter of 2013. The USGS predicts worldwide phosphate production will increase to 260 Mt (286 million st) by 2017. The new mines that opened in northern In the near future Continued depletion of high-yield deposits of ore in POTASH by In 2013, world potash production, consumption, and sales increased from those of 2012. In 2013, U.S. production was estimated to have increased to 1 Mt (1.1 million st) potassium oxide (K^O) from 900 kt (992,000 st) KjO in 2012. World production was estimated to have increased to 34.6 Mt (38.1 million st) IC.O in 2013 from 32.7 Mt (36 million st) K,0 in 2012. The majority of domestic potash was produced near Muriate of potash (MOP) for fertilizer use is an agriculturally acceptable mix of KC1 (95 percent pure or greater) and sodium chloride (halite) that includes minor amounts of other nontoxic minerals from the mined ore and is neither the crude ore sylvinite nor pure sylvite. Because the potassium content of its common salts varies, the potash industry has established a common standard of measurement for defining a product's potassium content (or purity) related to the approximate K,0. Because it is a source of soluble potassium, about 90 percent of potash consumed globally is used as fertilizer (plant nutrient). Potassium is one of the three primary nutrients required for plant growth and maturation; the others are fixed nitrogen and soluble phosphorus. The remaining 10 percent is used to produce potassium chemicals, which are used in such applications as aluminum recycling, animal feed supplements, oil-well drilling mud, snow and ice melting, soap manufacturing, steel heat-treating and water softening. Most potash is extracted by conventional underground mining methods. Solution mining is used when underground deposits are irregular and (or) very deep. Another production method involves the evaporation of brines in shallow salt lakes, followed by the harvesting of potassium minerals. Industry developments In Mosaic closed its 150-kt/a (165,000-stpy) MOP solution mine in In In 2013, A new underground potash mine was being developed in southeastern In the first quarter of 2013, Expansion projects outside of Outlook According to a PUMICE AND PUMICITE by Production of pumice in Pumice is an extrusive igneous volcanic rock formed through the cooling of air-pocketed lava, which results in a highly porous, low-density rock. The low density allows some pumice to float on water. Large pumice rafts, consisting, in some instances, of thousands of individual pieces of pumice clumped together, are a unique geologic phenomenon and have been documented to be as long as 30 km (19 miles) and to have drifted for several years in oceanic waters. Pumicite is defined as grains, flakes, threads and/ or shards of volcanic glass finer than 4 mm (0.1 in.) in diameter. Pumicite and volcanic ash are descriptive terms that are often interchangeably used. The porous, lightweight properties of pumice are well suited for its main use as an aggregate in lightweight building blocks and assorted building products. In 2013, other major applications included abrasives and horticulture (including landscaping). Minor applications include the use of pumice as an absorbent, as a concrete aggregate and admixture, as a filter aid and as a traction enhancer for tires. A small percentage of pumice was used in abrasive-type products, including pencil erasers, polishing agents for circuit boards and television monitors, tooth-filing mechanisms for chinchillas, exfoliates in cosmetics and a variety of heavy-duty hand cleaners. Imports were primarily used as raw material for building block (cinderblock) and other lightweight aggregate applications. Pumice deposits are usually mined as openpit operations. If necessary, the mined crude ore is dried and crushed. World resources of pumice are adequate for the foreseeable future. However, transportation costs may encourage development of sources of material closer to markets. Total world production of pumice was approximately 17 Mt (19 million st) in 2013. Several substitutes exist for pumice in agriculture, in horticulture, as an aggregate, as a concrete additive and in other end products. * RARE EARTHS by Global mine production of rare earths increased slightly in 2013 relative to that in 2012 (Fig. 1). Loparite mineral concentrates were produced at the Lovozersky mining operation in the In Sluggish economic conditions and improved material efficiencies resulted in decreased consumption of REO in 2013 compared to 2012. According to estimates published by the Prices for most rare-earth products declined significantly in 2013. In the light-rare-earth market, recycling and substitution efforts in catalysts and polishing markets contributed to a significant decrease in prices for lanthanum and cerium products. In permanent magnet applications, the average price for dysprosium, neodymium and samarium oxides (minimum 99 percent purity, free-on-board Price declines in heavy-rare-earth products were generally not as severe as light-rare-earth products. Weak demand for rare-earth phosphors contributed to decreased prices for europium (-37 percent), terbium (-34 percent) and yttrium (-39 percent) oxides compared with 2012. Prices for gadolinium products used in scintillators and medical contrast agents were unchanged. In From mid-August to At yearend 2013, the Global reserves of REO in 2013 were estimated to be In 2013, the Departamento Nacional de Produçâo Mineral Brazilian increased its estimate of Brazilian reserves to 22 Mt (24 million st) of contained REO from 40 kt (44,000 st) of contained REO. Companies that hold Brazilian reserves included SALT by Salt remains the most cost-effective material for maintaining full mobility on roads and highways and to prevent accidents during the winter snow season. It is also the most useful component for regenerating the ion exchange resins used for water conditioning. It is critical in the production of animal feed products and the most ubiquitous ingredient used in the food industry. Since 2005, The production and sales of salt in Total U.S. salt sales amounted to 40.1 Mt (44.2 million st) in 2013, an increase of 2.9 Mt (3.2 million st) from 2012. This was due to the increased winter weather activity and increased highway salt requirements. Water conditioning and food-grade salt sales remain stable. On a global scale, total world production of salt was 264 Mt (291 million st) in 2013, an increase in 5 Mt (5.5 million st, or 8 percent) from 2012. Much of this increase in production occurred in * Salt in brine produced by solution mining represents about 46 percent of the U.S. salt production. It is used mostly by the chemical industry (primarily chlorine and caustic soda). * Rock salt is mined from underground salt deposits and is about 36 percent of all salt produced in * About 11 percent of U.S. salt is produced as vacuum pan evaporated, or food grade salt, through recrystallization of salt from brine. These production sites are generally associated with captive-solution caverns to produce the brine. * The remaining 7 percent of salt production in Imports and exports U.S. salt exports decreased from 809 kt (892,000 st) in 2012 to 546 kt (602,000 st) in 2013. The reported U.S. consumption figures increased to 45 Mt (49.6 million st) in 2013 from 36.9 Mt (40.6 million st) in 2012. Key martlet forces In Issues, events and trends The environment continues to be an issue in the salt industry. Research has shown the Sensible Salting approach, pioneered and long advocated by the The issue of chloride toxicity has benefitted from new studies that will affect the market for water softening and other salt applications. Research has demonstrated that that chloride toxicity is significantly reduced in hard water; hard-water areas are where water softeners are employed to the greatest extent. This translates into more flexible chloride limits, particularly if site-specific species are employed. This combination of hardness-related toxicity and increased species testing may provide a more reliable scientific base for establishing chloride limits that will benefit everyone. Research at The impact of salt on health continues to be a controversial issue. A number of countries have active salt reduction initiatives in place. However, an SILLIMANITE MINERALS by The sillimanite minerals group includes the polymorphic mineral forms andalusite, kyanite and sillimanite. These aluminum-silicates share a common chemical composition, Al2SiOv but differ in their crystal structures and physical properties. The mineral mullite, A16SL,Oi3, is a closely related aluminum-silicate that occurs rarely in nature, but can be produced synthetically by heating aluminum-silicates to high temperatures or, alternatively, fusing certain combinations of aluminumand silica-enriched minerals. The sillimanite minerals are most frequently found in peraluminous gneisses and schists in regional metamorphic terranes. Andalusite also occurs in homfels and other thermally altered pelitic rocks within contact metamorphic aureoles adjacent to intrusive rocks. In The sillimanite minerals are valued in the production of refractories and ceramic products due to their volumetric stability, high alumina content (>60 percent A1203) and high melting point (>1,100° C or >1,768° F). A key characteristic of each of these minerals is the specific expansion properties as the minerals are calcined at high temperatures, producing a mixture of mullite and silica glass. At decomposition temperatures ranging from about 1,350° C (2,462° F) for kyanite up to 1,550° C (2,822° F) for sillimanite, the percent volume expansion is predictable and irreversible. Calcined kyanite will expand in volume by an amount that is dependent on initial particle size. Very fine particles (325 mesh) increase volumetrically by about 3 percent, while coarser particle fractions (35 mesh) increase by about 25 percent. Calcined andalusite and sillimanite expand in volume by about 6 percent and 4 percent, respectively. Below temperatures of decomposition, the minerals are characterized by relatively low coefficients of thermal expansion. The sillimanite minerals are, thus, valued as raw materials in counter balancing the shrinkage potential of clays and other component materials used in refractories and ceramics. Production For 2013, the In In The supply of andalusite to the global refractories market comes primarily from operations located in Also in Consumption The USGS estimated that more than 70 percent of refractories produced worldwide are consumed by the ironand steel-manufacturing industries, where high-temperature refractory linings are required for metallurgical furnaces and other high-performance heat treatment industrial applications. Refractory products that use the sillimanite minerals as raw materials include monolithics, firebrick, mortars, kiln furniture and investment casting shell molds. In the steel and foundry industries, as well as other metallurgical and glass applications requiring extreme durability, temperature and corrosion resistance, mullite refractory is often used exclusively. Other important end products include porcelain and sanitary ware, electrical insulators, heating elements, ceramic tiles, brake shoes and spark plugs. Pricing Due to limited data, availability and competitive market conditions, sales prices for the sillimanite minerals are regarded as estimates only. The average unit price for processed kyanite (55-60 percent A1203) sold in Industry news Andalusite resources in In ïïends and outlook Market conditions for sillimanite minerals and the refractory industries they support were sluggish during the first three quarters of 2013, coupled with lingering recessionary concerns in As an important consumer of refractory products, the performance of the steel industry provides a reliable indicator of the geographic distribution of global market demand. For 2013, the Growth in the steel industry was fueled mainly by production in Steel output in The demand for high quality raw and calcined sillimanite minerals is closely linked to the increasing demand for higher performance refractories with increased operational life spans. Industrial growth in Regarding the specific markets for andalusite, there has been much recent speculation regarding the potential of this commodity as a cheaper alternative to bauxite in many applications that rely on stable supplies of this raw material. In this regard, restrictive controls on the supply of bauxite for certain refractory applications may create new market opportunities for andalusite producers in the long term. * SODA ASH by Sodium carbonate, otherwise known as soda ash, is a key chemical for a diverse array of industrial end uses. More than 70 percent of the world demand for soda ash is used to produce flat glass, container glass and chemicals. Soda ash can be produced naturally or synthetically. Natural soda ash is produced by mining and refining mineral trona or extracting soda ash brines from lakebeds. Naturally produced soda ash benefits from lower production costs, lower energy consumption and minimal environmental impact compared with synthetic production methods. More than 80 percent of the known global resources for natural soda ash are located in Global demand and supply Global soda ash demand in 2013 is estimated to be 55 Mt (60 million st), up about 2.5 percent from 2012. U.S. demand for soda ash in 2013 was 5 Mt (5.5 million st). Demand in the U.S. grew about 1 percent, while demand growth in In contrast to the slow growth in U.S. demand, U.S. production of soda ash in 2013 increased 2.8 percent to 11.5 Mt (12.7 million st). The increased production was supported by strong demand for U.S. natural soda ash in export markets. The U.S. soda ash industry exported 6.5 Mt (7.1 million st) in 2013, an increase of 5 percent from the prior year. The increased demand for natural soda ash in export markets is driven by the cost competitiveness of U.S. production globally, and the desire of global customers for long-term security of supply. Pricing Global prices have increased during the last few years following the economic crisis in 2009. Prices have increased as global demand has increased to record levels and supply increases have not kept pace. Another significant contributing factor is the trend of increasing raw material and energy costs for producers of synthetic soda ash. particularly in The ability to competitively supply global markets is important for U.S. producers. U.S. export pricing has followed the trends in overseas markets. U.S. domestic prices show much less volatility compared to most global regions, while the market follows global pricing trends over the longer term. Outlook U.S. demand for soda ash is expected to grow by 4 percent in 2014, compared to 2013. This will be primarily due to increased demand from flat glass and chemicals segments, as a result of an uptick in the housing and automobile market. Demand for soda ash in rapidly developing economies is expected to continue to grow at a faster rate than markets in the U.S. and Natural soda ash producers in More than 80 percent of the known global resources for natural soda ash are located in STRONTIUM by In 2013, U.S. apparent consumption of strontium (contained in celestite and manufactured strontium compounds) increased to 28.9 kt (31,800 st) from 16.7 kt (18,500 st) in 2012. The increase in apparent consumption is the result of the doubling of imports of celestite from Total imports of strontium compounds and minerals in 2013 were about 12 percent less than those of 2012. In 2013. the U.S. Customs unit value of imported strontium carbonate was Although strontium is the 15th most abundant element in the earth's crust, only the minerals celestite (strontium sulfate) and strontianite (strontium carbonate) contain strontium in sufficient quantities to make recovery practical. Celestite has been the leading source of strontium since the 1870s because it occurs more frequently in economically attractive sedimentary deposits. The most important celestite deposits are found in The world's leading producers of celestite are Celestite is rarely consumed directly. It is typically converted to strontium carbonate through chemical processes. Strontium carbonate is used directly in some applications and is also converted into downstream chemicals such as strontium chloride, strontium hydroxide or strontium nitrate. Imports of celestite, the most commonly used strontium mineral, have increased every year since 2010 and increased dramatically in 2013. with virtually all of the material coming from Ceramics and glass manufacture remained among the top end-use industries through strontium's use in ceramic ferrite magnets and other ceramic and glass applications. The use of strontium nitrate in pyrotechnics was estimated to equal the use of strontium carbonate in ferrite magnets. Other applications include master alloys for aluminum casting, pigments and fillers in corrosion-resistant paints, and electrolytic production of zinc. I TALC AND PYROPHYLLITE by G.P. Tomaino, Talc is a layered, hydrous magnesium silicate mineral. It has a soft, soapy feel and typically a smooth texture and is known for its insulation, heat resistance, chemical stability, oil absorption and strong covering quality. Talc, Mg,Si4O|0(OH)2, has a theoretical chemical composition of MgO at 31.7 percent, SiO, at 63.5 percent and H,0 at 4.8 percent. However, talc's chemical and mineralogical composition can vary depending on its geological history/parent rock association. These mineral associations and variable levels are usually chlorite, quartz and carbonates (magnesite, calcite and dolomite). Two key elemental substitutions that can occur in the talc crystal structure are iron for magnesium and fluorine for hydroxyl. These compositional differences may limit or enhance the usage of talc in specific market niches. Talc deposits are categorized under four origintypes occurring as secondary and/or tertiary alterations of pre-existing rocks: 1) ultramafic 2) mafic 3) metasedimentary and 4) metamorphic. Type 1 deposits, while the most abundant, are generally of lower grade and are second to Type 3 deposits based on utilizationcommercialization. Type 4 deposits, while historically a dominant source, have diminished substantially in their usage over the years due to elevated amphibole content. Type 2 deposits are least pure and used of all the origin-types. Another representation of the four talc origin categories noted above can be as ultramafic/ mafic, metasedimentary-carbonate, metasedimentarysilicoaluminous and metamorphic. Product groupings such as industrial, cosmetic and pharmaceutical sometimes inferred or denoted a purity, but these groupings are not strict delineations in recent times. Additionally, some talc products can sometimes be categorized under chloritic-talc, carbonate-talc or tremolitic-talc. Here, the hyphened statements denote the second most dominant mineral phase (usually 20-50 percent) in addition to the predominant talc component (usually at 50 percent or greater). Pyrophyllite is also a layered hydrous aluminum silicate mineral. Pyrophyllite has similar physical properties as talc, while elemental substitutions are minimal compared to talc. Pyrophyllite, Al2Si40|(1(0H)2, has a theoretical chemical composition of Al20., at 28.3 percent, Si02 at 66.7 percent and H,0 at 5 percent. Typical accessory minerals can be quartz, kaolin, diaspore, boehmite, sericite and chlorite, in addition to iron-containing impurities of hematite, limonite/ goethite and pyrite. Grades are differentiated by particle size, moisture content, fired color and purity, as measured by fineness and screen residue. Pyrophyllite deposits are generally classified under hydrothermal or metamorphic with more expanded types as: 1) hydrothermal in metasomatites continental and island-arc volcanic zones, platforms, folded systems, 2) hydrothermal in metasomatites in wall rock quartz veins-granitoids and metamorphosed clastic suites, 3) metamorphosed metasomatites in submarine volcanic zones enclosing sulfide ores, 4) stratiform metamorphosed clastic clay suites with pyroclastic material and coal seams and 5) in clays formed by weathering. Pyrophyllite has a high dielectric strength, low electrical conductivity, reasonably high thermal stability and chemical inertness that allows for primary usages in refractory and ceramic applications. Critical attributes in refractory applications are iron and quartz content, while a critical attribute in ceramics is whiteness before and after firing. Additional industrial usages are in paint, chemical carriers in agricultural and filler in industrial coatings, sealants and caulks. Production and consumption For 2013, the primary producer of pyrophyllite in Piedmont Minerals, also in Three companies comprised for six talc-producing mines that are located in four states and accounted for greater than 99 percent of the domestic production in 2013. Domestic production is basically openpit mining. Imerys Talc (Imerys Filtration and Performance Minerals) remains the top domestic and international producer with mines and processing facilities in Previously reported 2012 estimated production and consumption values (2012e) have been corrected with 2012 actual values in the 15-year trend figures. The talc industry had a slight increase in production (3 percent) for 2013e, which is promising given that there was a 16-percent decrease in production from 2011 to 2012. However, in comparison to the 20052006 highs, the industry would be considered still in stagnation. For 2013e, talc production is estimated at 531 kt (585,000 st), an increase of only 1 percent and valued at For 2013, apparent consumption of talc was estimated to be 600 kt (660,000 st) an increase of only about 2 percent from 2012 levels. The average-price of a processed ton of product was estimated to be about For 2013, companies in Exports/lmports For 2013e, Talc exports were 170 kt (187,000 st), estimated and reflect a 32 percent decrease from 2012. Talc imports amounted to about 240 kt (264,000 st), a 26-percent decrease from 2012. About 75 percent of the total tonnage of imported talc varied among plastics, cosmetics and paint applications in decreasing order, with the remainder in ceramics, paper and rubber. For 2013, total talc usage including imports was distributed as follows: plastics (27 percent), ceramics (18 percent), paint (16 percent), paper (15 percent), cosmetics (5 percent), roofing (6 percent), rubber (3 percent) and other (10 percent). The "other" section includes a variety of applications for pharmaceuticals, agricultural products, animal-feed, sealant, sculpturing, food and polishing. Fifteen-year trend data for imports consumption and exports taken from the USGS are provided in Fig. 2. In 2013. employment in the talc sector was at 300 at mines and mills, a decrease of about 3 percent from 2012. Overall, the employment sector has remained stable during the last five years. The fifteen-year trend data of production and employment from the USGS are shown in Fig. 3. Uses, new applications, processing technology, future trends Talc producers must continue to provide a functional and high performance mineral additive that can increase the value of their products to the end use customer. In specific cases, unique properties can be achieved by employing proprietary coatings or processing products to increase aspect ratio by delaminating or to increase the overall talc purity by beneficiation. Silane/siloxane-based and directed surface treatments are commonplace. There are a multitude of uses for talc such as plastics, cosmetics, flooring, health care, catalytic converters, animal feed, caulks, sealants, gaskets, belts, hoses, specialty anti-blocking/anti-hazing in plastic films, auto body putty, asphalt shingles, joint compounds, pharmaceuticals, ceramics and dimension stone bodies (steatite). In ceramic applications of dinnerware, sanitary ware and hobby ceramics, talc provides low shrinkage as well as high brightness upon firing at various temperatures. In other applications, high-quality, calcined-talc blends can be tailored to individual customer's specifications to impart a controlled shrinkage and reduce firing time. The reduced firing time aids in processing and energy costs for the customer. Another specialty usage for which demand remains high for talc is combining talc with kaolinite and other proprietary additives to formulate firedcordierite bodies used for catalytic converters for vehicles. In dimension stone applications, talc is used for countertops, sinks, mantels, fireplace surrounds, pavers and tile brick. The competitive products in this field are SiC or metal-based catalytic converters. In paints, talc is an economic extender and filler while providing brightness and durability to paint coatings. In rubber applications, talc provides reinforcement, ultraviolet radiation resistance and can be used as a processing aid for good extrusion rates, impermeability and improved surface finish. The plastics market continues to offer some potential growth opportunities, especially in polypropylene. It is projected that increases in talc usage for lightweight and recyclable products are needed for the automotive market. Here, the desire for compacted and submicron talc products provide high-performance end use products. A potential upside for new uses continues in the area of wood polymer composites, where the talc will provide a functional filler role. Talc continues to be used in the papermaking process, especially as a pitch control agent, while it faces competition in the paper filler and niche paper coating sectors from precipitated and ground calcium carbonates. In ceramics, talc competes with clays and pyrophyllite; in paint, plastics and rubber with kaolin and mica. Substitutes for talc in ceramics are bentonite, chlorite, kaolin and pyrophyllite. In paint, substitutes are chlorite, kaolin and mica. In paper, they are calcium carbonate and kaolin. In plastics, substitutes are bentonite, kaolin, mica and wollastonite. And in rubber applications, substitutes include kaolin and mica. Environmental and regulatory In late 2012, the talc division of the As noted previously for 2013, two new endeavors were being monitored and worked on in the talc industry: TITANIUM by Titanium is the ninth most abundant element in the earth's crust and can be found in nearly all rocks and sediments. It is a lithophile element with a strong affinity for oxygen and is not found as a pure metal in nature. Titanium was first isolated as a pure metal in 1910, but it was not until 1948 that the metal was produced commercially using the Kroll process (named after its developer, About 93 percent of the global titanium mineral consumption is for the production of titanium dioxide (TiO,). TiO, has properties of opacity and chemical inertness that make it well suited as a pigment to impart a durable white to paints, paper, wallboard, toothpaste, sunscreen and plastics. As a metal, few materials possess titanium's strength-to-weight ratio and corrosion resistance. In high-strength applications, titanium competes with aluminum, composites, intermetallics, steel and superalloys. Ilmenite (FeTiO,) and rutile (TiO,) are the two principal minerals used as the source for TiO, pigment and titanium metal. All of the world's natural rutile and a significant proportion of the world's ilmenite are currently mined from placer deposits. Ilmenite is also mined from hard-rock deposits in For placer deposits, dredging and dry mining surface techniques are used for the recovery of titanium minerals. Gravity spirals, magnetic and high-tension separation circuits are used to separate the heavy mineral constituents. Ilmenite is often processed to produce a synthetic rutile or titaniferous slag. Although numerous technologies are used to produce synthetic rutile, nearly all are based on either selective leaching or thermal reduction of iron and other impurities in ilmenite. Titaniferous slag containing 75 percent to 95 percent TiO, is produced commercially using pyrometallurgical processes. TiO, pigment is produced from ilmenite, rutile or titaniferous slag by either the chloride process or the sulfate process.The sulfate process uses simpler technology than the chloride process and can use lower-grade, less-expensive feedstock, but has higher infrastructure and process costs. Pigment produced by either process is categorized by crystal form as either anatase or rutile (polymorphs of TiO,). Rutile pigment is less reactive with the binders in paint when exposed to sunlight than is the anatase pigment and is preferred for use in outdoor paints. Anatase pigment has a bluer tone than rutile, is somewhat softer, and is used mainly in indoor paints and in paper manufacturing. Depending on the manner in which it is produced and subsequently finished, titanium dioxide pigment can exhibit a wide range of functional properties, including dispersion, durability, opacity and tinting. Production Global mine production in 2013 of ilmenite and rutile totaled 7.6 Mt (8.4 million st) of contained TiO,, a 5 percent increase from 2012 (Table 1). Global reserves of ilmenite were Industry news Mineral sands. In Titanium dioxide pigment In September, Titanium metal Several agreements were signed between aerospace manufacturers and titanium producers to assure their titanium supply chain. In September, the Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy (ARPA-E) announced the award of five projects to develop new titanium metal and alloy production technologies. In June, Prices Prices at yearend 2013 in all titanium categories (Table 3) were less than those of yearend 2012. Titanium mineral feedstock prices continued to decline after reaching an all-time high in mid-2012. VERMICULITE by Worldwide vermiculite usage in 2013 was 512 kt (564,400 st), which is a 5.3-percent increase from 2013. Vermiculite is mined from shallow (<35 m or 115 ft) surface deposits throughout the world, as all commercial vermiculite is formed by surface weathering of either biotite or phlogopite micas. Processing is by air winnowing or wet screening. The largest producers are Imerys Industrial Minerals, North American production increased slightly in 2013. Total consumption in Primary uses for vermiculite are in horticultural (potting soils and amendments for exfoliated vermiculite) and fire protection applications (fire protection sprays, boards and ceramics). However, the use of vermiculite as an intumescent (concentrates prior to exfoliation) in coatings and binders (chemically delaminated vermiculites that form high tensile strength films), in finely ground form (as a functional filler in coatings, construction materials and in friction brake applications) and in pollution control applications continue finding growing, higher value markets. The University of Prices for domestic U.S. vermiculite concentrate, ex-plant, ranged from Total worldwide production capacity continues to outpace consumption, but the coarser size (greater than 2-mm or 0.8-in. particles) products are in very constrained supply, while the very fine sizes are in excess capacity. Useful web sites: http://www.vermiculite.org. WOLLASTONITE by Wollastonite ( Substitution of iron and manganese for calcium is a common source of chemical impurity and can exceed 20 percent on a weight basis. Most industrial applications employ iron contents of less than one percent. Iron and manganese impurities also impart coloration. Brightness is a measure of wollastonite powder whiteness and is highest in pure varieties. Calcite content must be low for use in ceramics. Two perfect cleavages provide an acicular habit that may become more pronounced with milling. Acicularity is measured by the aspect ratio (length: width) of mineral fibers. Wollastonite commonly forms the reaction of calcite and silica at high temperature conditions in the Earth's crust. Silica is provided either from impurities within limestone or as dissolved species in fluids that migrate through carbonate rocks in hydrothermal systems to form rock units, known as skarn. Most deposits form at depths from 2 to 15 km (1.2 to 9 miles) below the surface. They are subsequently exhumed during mountain-building episodes. Wollastonite skarn is found in recent and ancient mountain belts worldwide, where it can be mined in openpits. Synthetic wollastonite contributes less than 2 percent of world production capacity. This is normally of the beta type (pseudowollastonite, bourgoisite) and is not acicular, although some very fine fiber alpha acicular wollastonite is made in Wollastonite capacity and reserves world wide World capacity is 1.02 Mt/a (1.1 million stpy) ( Resources Proven resources 82.6 Mt (91 million st) Basic reserves 61.24 Mt (67.5 million st) Economically exploitable reserves 46.39 Mt (51 million st) Minera Roca Rodando (formerly Minera NYCO), But There are several smaller wollastonite producers in Wolkem is developing its deposit near Ajmer, The balance, 40 kt/a (44,000 st) of U.S. capacity is at R.T. Vanderbilt, near Canadian Wollastonite received final approval from the Resource is estimated at 9.6 Mt (10.5 million st) skarn containing 42-80 percent wollastonite and 25-40 percent diopside. Mining commenced in 2012. A processing plant capacity of 15 kt/a (16,500 stpy) wollastonite, and 12 kt/a (13,200 stpy) of diopside is planned for 2014. The operation will be focused on the production of HAR treated and nontreated products. In addition, specialty calcium and magnesium aggregates were mined in 2013. Tests indicate that their wollastonite is a suitable noncarbon dioxide generating source of calcium and silica for use in portland cement production. They are finding interest in byproduct diopside, as a source of calcium, magnesium and silica in fertilizers. In Aroche SL is planning to mine 43 kt/a (47,000 stpy) in Namaqua Wollastonite has a mine in Production of wollastonite The USGS reports Chinese production in 2012 was 300 kt (330,000 st).This has risen from 250 kt (276,000 st) in 1995. This production is derived from more than 60 small operations. But the industry is consolidating with six to eight companies processing ore from several mines. The largest producers are Most of the production goes for use in tiles. But the larger companies are adding more sophisticated processing methods and entering into high-aspect-ratio and fine-grade markets. According to IM reports, Wolkem's production was 1801(198.000 st) in 2012. USGS estimates Indian production at 150 kt (165,000 st) in 2012, up from 145 kt (160,000 st) in 2010. Wolkem uses hand-sorting followed by magnetic separation to achieve purity of 98 percent. Milling in 13 plants is by ball, In 2009, Cañad Wollastonite the first industrial mineral mine licensed in Canadian Wollastonite plans to construct a flotation plant in 2015 for production of a coarse highgrade, high-aspect product to be shipped into existing channels as a high quality feed stock material. CW is seeking a joint venture with one or more firms to bring production of higher value added products in house. Mexican production in 2011 is estimated by USGS at 47.5 kt (52,300 st) and 55.2 kt (60,800 st) in 2012. Other sources estimate production at 60 kt (66,000 st). According to USGS, Compañía Mineral Illustracion (CMI) operates a mine in Namlbla/ Namaqua Wollastonite Pty has restarted its mine near Garies, Namaqualand and anticipates sales of 17.3 kt (19,100 st) in 2012 and 23.3 kt (25,700 st) in 2014. The USGS reported Namibian production in 2012 as 2.4 kt (2,600 st) up from 55 t (60 st) in 2008. U.S. production U.S. wollastonite production and consumption data are not reported by USGS, to protect the confidentiality of the only two larger scale miners. But the USGS reported that U.S. production in 2008 was less than 100 kt (110,000 st), 50 kt (55,000 st) less than in 2000. USGS reports production increased 6 percent in 2011 over 2010. U.S. production has been hard hit by the recession and was estimated to be 60 kt to 70 kt (66,000 to 77,000 st) in 2009, with 4-7 percent improvement in 2011 (USGS). The reduction was due to the recession, especially in U.S. automobile production, with its influence on plastics, paint and metallurgical supply. U.S. production is dominated by Fording estimated capacity for the two operations at 110 kt/a (121,000 stpy) for Recent announcements place R.T. Vanderbilt has a mine in A few thousand tons are mined from deposits in New sources Exploration for new wollastonite sources in Some activity is reported in Explotaciones Aroche SL has a deposit in Reserves of 50 percent wollastonite of 500 kt (550,000 st) have been identified in Kimmeria Xanthi. ïïade Trade statistics are not collected by the U.S. or by The USGS estimates less than 4.5 kt (5,000 st) of wollastonite was imported into the U.S. in 2012. Sources were World sales of wollastonite were estimated to be in the range 550 kt-600 kt/a (606,000-660,000 stpy). Pricing Industrial Mineral's list prices for wollastonite in 200 mesh 325 mesh Acicular (15:-1-20:1 aspect ratio) Chinese, f.o.b. tonne Acicular minus 200 mesh 325 mesh All prices f.o.b. mine or processing plant Wolkem believes prices of wollastonite from Consumption Smaller markets include wallboard, adhesives, caulks and sealants. North American consumption of fine powder products was dominated by the ceramics industry, but per capita production of tiles is lower than in Wollastonite is a key ingredient in ceramic tiles. In 2010, In Production of fibrocement products is increasing in Itends Prices of polymers have escalated due to the high price of oil. High-volume polymers like polypropylene (PP) now sell for Typically, in the 1980s, PP sold for Use of wollastonite in plastics is growing faster in The trend in higher value wollastonite products is to finer, high-aspect-ratio grades to improve the surface smoothness of reinforced plastics. This trend is likely to accelerate with the move by the automobile industry toward unpainted plastic parts, especially exterior body panels. There is major interest by automobile makers in nanoclay reinforcement. This will make wollastonite producers devise new processing methods to produce submicron grades to avoid losing market share. Surface treatment is used to improve adhesion between mineral fibers and polymers. This sector is likely to grow. Generally, most high-quality wollastonite products derive from A new development with very large potential is the use of wollastonite as a sequestration mineral for carbon dioxide, a major factor in global warming. Unlike other methods, sequestration by wollastonite is permanent and results in a mixture of precipitated calcium carbonate and silica that may have filler applications in paper, plastics and rubber. Substitution of wollastonite as a source of calcium and silica in the cement and glass industries will reduce global warming by reducing carbon dioxide emissions. One development of concern is the NIOSH Roadmap for Research version 4,2010, which defines fibers as greater than 5 microns with aspect ratio greater than 3:1. The industrial minerals industry as a whole is challenging this.B ZIRCONIUM by Zirconium is the 20th most abundant element in the Earth's crust. It occurs in a variety of rock types and geologic environments but most often in igneous rocks in the form of zircon (ZrSi04). Zircon is recovered as a coproduct of the mining and processing of heavy mineral sands for the titanium minerals ilmenite and rutile. The sands are formed by the weathering and erosion of rock containing zircon and titanium heavy minerals and their subsequent concentration in sedimentary systems, particularly in coastal environments. Zircon is used for facings on foundry molds, where it increases resistance to metal penetration and gives a uniform finish to castings. Milled or ground zircon is used in refractory paints for coating the surfaces of molds. Refractory bricks containing zircon are used in furnaces and hearths for containing molten metals. Zirconium dioxide, also known as zirconia, has high light refractivity and good thermal stability and is primarily used as an opacifier and pigment in glazes and colors for pottery and other ceramic products. Substitutes for zircon in the foundry industry include calcined kaolin clay and olivine, but substitution in the ceramics industry is more difficult. Yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) is used in the manufacture of oxygen sensors that control combustion in automobile engines and furnaces; in the manufacture of diverse products including cubic zirconia, fiberoptic connectors, refractory coatings and structural ceramics; and as an insulation coating on turbine engine blades to extend the engine service life. YSZ is also used in dental applications such as bridges, crowns and inlays due to its strength and fracture resistance. Zirconium metal is used in corrosive environments and various specialty alloys. Because of its low thermal neutron absorption cross section, hafnium-free zirconium metal is used as cladding for nuclear fuel rod tubes. Production Global production of zircon concentrates was 1.4 Mt (1.54 million st) in 2013, a slight decrease from 2012 (Table 1). Global reserves of zirconium dioxide are estimated to be 67 Mt (74 million st), 60 percent of which occur in Industry news During 2013 in In In Prices Zircon prices at yearend 2013 decreased by 33 percent from yearend 2012 prices (Table 2) as producers continued to draw down inventories.
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