Cultural Diversity and Responsivity

Cultural diversity and responsivity is a major topic in the field of educa- tion right now, with so many children needing special attention in order to engage the educational process to its fullest. Teachers must be equipped to meet each child coming to school with a skill set that will provide a founda- tion of learning.

Contributing to this column are Lois Christensen and Jennifer Kilgo who, along with column editor Maxie Kohler, are professors at the University of Alabama at Birmingham (UAB). We hope you find these articles interesting, informative, and useful.

THE IMPACT OF CULTURAL DIVERSITY ON SPECIAL EDUCATION PROVISION IN THE UNITED STATES. Palawat, M., & May, M. The Journal of International Association of Special Education, 2011, 12(1), 58-63. The authors of this article discuss the influence cultural backgrounds have on intellectual and developmental disabilities of Asian children in the United States. As they note, cultural beliefs held by parents and special education professionals can certainly impact decision-making processes specific to one's child. This article addresses issues of cultural di- versity among Asian parents, special education professionals, and other service providers that impact how chil- dren with disabilities are served within the United States. According to the authors, parents' beliefs about services and the actual disability are related to their beliefs about education and inter- vention in general.

There are four main parts to this article. First, the authors examine the literature regarding cultural percep- tions of disabilities. For example, they compare how disabilities are viewed by Thai, Chinese, Indian, Japanese, Korean, and Filipino cultures. Each of these groups has culture-specific attitudes about disabilities and their causes. These beliefs dictate how a dis- ability will be addressed. For very best results, providing services through a team approach with collaboration be- tween parents and professionals is best, as we already know.

A second part of this article notes that one of the most frequently cited reasons "contributing to poor col- laboration between Asian families and special educators" in the United States is cultural and linguistic differences (p. 59). The "client-centered approach" used in the United States can cause concern for Asian parents, in terms of their cultural and family values. The nuances of cultural differences must be taken into consideration.

A third section of this article ex- plores the "process of special education services, including referral, diagnostic evaluation, and special education placement resulting from cross-cultural perspectives" (p. 58). As the authors note, "Some difficulties in the U.S. special education process resulting from cross-cultural perspectives occur when professionals lack understand- ing of cultural diversity" (p. 60). The authors expand on this issue further and stress the importance of working together through good, understandable communication for the betterment of the child.

The authors close by making four recommendations and conclusions for service providers. This article is a real "must read" for anyone going into special education who wants to know more about cultural diversity, particu- larly regarding the Asian culture within the United States.

COLLABORATING WITH CULTURAL AND LINGUISTICALLY DIVERSE FAMILIES OF STUDENTS IN RURAL SCHOOLS WHO RECEIVE SPECIAL EDUCATION SERVICES. Conroy, P. W. Special Education Quarterly, 2012, 31(3), 20-24. In this article, the author addresses working with culturally and linguistically di- verse (CLD) children in rural areas of the United States. She notes that work- ing and collaborating with the family is one of the most fundamental aspects of assisting these children. The article speaks to some of the challenges facing children in the rural areas, giving ex- amples of how to address issues specific to these areas. Conroy addresses the following topics: creating relationships with CLD families, informal meetings, formal meetings, considerations of cul- ture when working with CLD families, perceptions of disability, perceptions of goal setting, understanding of the special education process, and family support.

For example, there have been chal- lenges for special educators in rural areas, thus they must go the extra mile and spend the extra time to create a level of trust so that parents feel com- fortable. As noted here and many other places, "Family participation is one of the central tenets of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 2004)," so special educators must make very sure that parents are coopera- tive partners. In rural areas, that may mean something very different than in urban areas. Living in a very rural, isolated area, lack of transportation, lack of child care, and limited job op- portunities can be significant stressors on a daily basis and barriers to family involvement in children's education.

Conroy discusses informal meetings with parents and suggests home visits. She provides four guidelines for home visits to help CLD children and build trust. Using what Conroy calls a "cul- tural liaison" to interpret is also impor- tant, so parents can easily understand what is being offered.

Given the power imbalance between parents and professionals, Conroy stresses that educators must take great care to make sure that parents under- stand the language via a liaison and to minimize professional jargon that only serves to confuse many parents.

This article is very easy to read and is recommended to anyone training to work with CLD children and parents. It is well sourced, and provides a very good overview of some important points when working with rural CLD children.

LESSONS LEARNED FROM WORK WITH INTERNATIONAL PARTNERS TO INFORM RURAL PRACTICES FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD INTERVENTION. Grisham-Brown, J., & McCormick, K. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 2013, 32(1), 3-10. This article exam- ines the topic of training early child- hood educators in cultural norms and mores, particularly of Hispanic chil- dren, in an effort to better serve these young children. The authors describe two strategies program faculty at the University of Kentucky used in their Interdisciplinary Early Childhood Education (IECE) program. The au- thors provide a very nice discussion of "Immigrant Children," "Migrant Children," "Rural Communities," and what they call "Challenges to Providing Services to Diverse Populations and Purpose" before they begin their ex- planation of the two methods they be- lieve best prepare their students. They believe one of the best ways to train future early childhood teachers about international educational systems and cultural patterns is to infuse an interna- tional education abroad experience in the teacher training program. There is a divide between the number of children who need assistance because of cultural issues and the number of teachers who are truly trained to facilitate the learn- ing experience because they actually understand the cultural differences firsthand. In this article, the authors discuss how they have incorporated a study abroad to Guatemala in their program. A second program that their students developed included educa- tional materials, etc. for use in a rural, tribal community in Ecuador.

Grisham-Brown and McCormick provide a very nice rationale, discus- sion, and description for each of the two programs, and explain how both have better informed their students. This is a very interesting read for fac- ulty members in teacher education pro- grams around the world, as it provides much information that can move this facet of the education field forward.

LEARNING FROM LATINO FAMILIES. Auerbach, S. Educational Leadership, 2011, 68 (8), 16-21. Susan Auerbach begins this article with a narrative about a principal, Marie Kramer, who serves in a pri- marily lower-income, Latino com- munity in Los Angeles. Many of the families and students are immigrants. Her staff, most of whom are bilin- gual, come from the same mindset and some even come from the local neighborhood. Grants, social services, health care, and food assistance are sought for the families in need.

At the school, all families are welcomed. They come to school for math and family literacy sessions and Kramer invites family members to lead some sessions. Fundraisers are huge, as mothers cook hundreds of tamales and tacos. Fathers turn out for school beautification days. Observing this authentic school and family partnership, Auerbach devel- oped three salient lessons:

1. Family cultures are validated- Apoyo is Spanish for support. This is the key word that immigrant families utilized when speaking to Auerbach. The scheme in Kramer's school is working collaboratively with families to rear children. Together, they envision the power of education and staying on the "right path."

2. Bridging the gap-In Auerbach's estimation, the more the Latino population grows, the better edu- cators and advocates for children seem to embrace the perspective that families are assets in class- rooms and within the community. This can be done by simply shar- ing similar views and dreams for students, making home visits, and recognizing that immigrant fami- lies have knowledge to contribute to classroom learning.

3. Nurture the family's voice-The family is in partnership with the school to build allies and feelings of relational power to develop mu- tual respect. These are key values for resolving conflicts, organizing, and meeting school goals together with all stakeholders. Ask families what their perspectives are for meetings or sessions of meet- ings. Find professionals who are bilingual to provide education, preferably someone from the com- munity. Auerbach offers many touching examples of how schools and neighborhood partnerships work together to provide educa- tion. What counts, says Auerbach, is bringing families' voices and cul- tures to the educational table.

BECOMING GOOD HUMAN BEINGS: Low-income Mothers' Dreams for Children and Their Insight Into Children's Needs. Mohr, J., Zygmunt, E., & Clark, P. Childhood Research and Practice, 2012, 14(2). http://ecrp.uiuc.edu/v14n2/mohr.html. This qualitative research study in- quires into how lower income mothers describe the beliefs and hopes they have for their young children. In the introduction, the authors describe how some researchers refute the claims that lower income families hold the same dreams for their children as do middle and upper strati populations. They present opposing research to support the notion that economic class and var- ied ethnicities don't make a difference regarding the dreams that families have for their children. The authors' strong literature review supports the view that people of color and those living in lower income strati deeply care about their children's cognitive, physical, and emotional development and want plentiful opportunities to nurture their children's love of learning.

Two research questions derived from a larger study that was designed to develop a more detailed understanding of lower income parents' expectations for their children and mentioned here were the following: 1) What do fami- lies in poverty perceive as their young children's needs? and 2) What goals and aspirations do families in poverty have for their young children? As a case study, four lower income participants, all women, were chosen. Rich data were collected, including photos taken by participants that described their no- tions of childhood.

Participants explained that they wanted their children to become good citizens. Self-confidence, faith, respon- sibility, and independence were other values cited. Other participants wished for their children to learn respect, generosity, and sharing. Furthermore, participants specified that freedom and having a feeling of safety were important, especially at a young age. They wished for good relationships that would continue into adulthood. Attending and graduating from college was another hope expressed by the par- ticipants.

Basic skills were considered im- portant, and were viewed as stepping stones to further education. These skills include learning to work with others, and that begins in early childhood education. Curiosity leads to explora- tion and investigation, which were additional skills that the participants sought for their children as they grew.

All families, most especially diverse, lower income families, need opportu- nities to be heard and become involved in their children's early childhood educational lives. Promoting the values and aspirations that families hold im- portant is key to effective partnerships between early childhood centers and families. It is imperative for early child- hood professionals, both teachers and administrators, to understand not only the needs of the families they serve but also the families' vision of early educa- tion for their children.

RACIAL AND ETHNIC DISPARITIES IN ADHD DIAGNOSIS FROM KINDERGARTEN TO EIGHTH GRADE. Morgan, P., Staff, J., Hillemeier, M., Garkas, G., & Maczuga, S. Pediatrics, 2013, 132(1), 85-93. This article provides an overview of a study that examined the extent to which ra- cial or ethnic differences occur in the diagnosis of attention deficit hyperac- tivity disorder (ADHD) during early and middle childhood. The authors examined the dynamics of race and ethnic differences over time (i.e., kin- dergarten to 8th grade) and the dispar- ities in treatment at specific points in the educational process (i.e., 5th grade and 8th grade). The sample for the study was the nationally representative Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998-1999, and the analysis used was discrete-time haz- ard modeling.

The results of the study revealed that minority children were less likely than white children to receive a diagnosis of ADHD. With varying confounding factors statistically controlled, the odds of a diagnosis of ADHD for children representing African Americans (69%), Hispanics (50%), and children of other races and ethnicities (46%) were lower than for whites. The factors that were determined to increase children's risk of an ADHD diagnosis included being male, being raised by an older mother or in an English-speaking household, and engaging in externalizing problem behaviors. The factors that were found to be associated with a decreased risk of an ADHD diagnosis included dis- playing greater academic achievement, engaging in learning-related behaviors (e.g., being attentive), and not having health insurance. The study found that of the children diagnosed with ADHD, children representing racial and ethnic minority backgrounds were less likely than white children to take prescrip- tion medication for ADHD.

The authors concluded that racial and ethnic inequalities in ADHD diagnosis occur by kindergarten and continue until at least the end of the 8th grade. The confounding factors that were measured in this study do not explain racial and ethnic disparities in ADHD diagnosis and treatment. As a result of the findings of this study, the authors recommend that cultur- ally responsive monitoring should be strengthened to ensure that all children are appropriately screened, diagnosed, and treated for ADHD. Educators must be aware of the racial and ethnic disparities that exist in ADHD diagno- sis and treatment. Furthermore, teach- ers must recognize the impact these disparities can have on the education of children representing diverse racial and ethnic backgrounds. All those involved in the educational process must advocate for culturally sensitive practices to address this complex and important issue.

MANY LANGUAGES, ONE TEACHER: Supporting Language and Literacy Development for Preschool Dual Language Learners. Magruder, E., Hayslip, W., Espinosa, L., & Maters, C. Young Children, 2013, 68(1), 8-15. This article points out that, according to the U.S. Census Bureau, the number of children whose home language is other than English in the United States will increase from approximately 22% to 40% of school- age students by 2030, and the number of preschoolers is growing even more rapidly due to the increasing immigra- tion and birth rates. The large number of dual language learners (DLLs) in early childhood programs today creates the need for teachers to know how to effectively support their language and literacy development.

Most educators recognize the knowledge that dual language learners (DLLs) bring to the classroom, typi- cally learned in their home language. In this article, the authors address the "critical need to both provide more intensive and individualized support in oral language development to all chil- dren and explicitly help DLLs to apply what they already know about language to the task of learning English." The authors share teaching strategies fo- cused on language and literacy that are recommended specifically for DLLs, but can be beneficial for all children.

The article begins with a scenario in a preschool classroom to illustrate the interactions that occur among children (some DLLs) who are all at different stages of language development and how the teacher designs instruction that builds on their linguistic knowl- edge and fosters English language acquisition. As the authors emphasize, systematic dual language instruction is central to the long-term success of young children. The article de- scribes Personalized Oral Language(s) Learning (POLL), a specific set of intensive and individualized strategies and practices the authors designed to improve the effectiveness of oral lan- guage learning for all young children but with a focus on DLLs. The three components of POLL are: 1) families first, 2) environmental supports, and 3) instructional supports.

The families first component em- phasizes the importance of teacher and family collaboration to support lan- guage and learning goals. This is done through joint goal setting and a family languages and interests interview. The environmental support component includes making sure that the physical environment is nurturing and engag- ing; learning centers promote conversa- tions around exploration and discovery and are linked to study themes; print- rich labeling is visible and representa- tive of all home languages; and books and materials reflect children's languag- es, cultures, families, and communities. The instructional supports component includes intentional messages, anchor texts, vocabulary imprinting, visual cues/gestures, song/chants, and center extensions. Numerous examples of each aspect are provided in the POLL model.

This article is recommended for teachers of young children, who will be able to integrate elements of the POLL model in their goal setting, planning, lessons, instruction, and observations for DLLs. By using these recommend- ed practices, teachers can strengthen their connections with families, per- sonalize oral language interactions, and increase learning opportunities for DLLs and all children. This article will help teachers of young children be bet- ter prepared to support multiple lan- guages in their classrooms and facilitate oral language learning for all children.

A FRAMEWORK FOR PROVIDING CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE EARLY INTERVENTION SERVICES. Bradshaw, W. Young Exceptional Children, 2013, 16(1), 3-15. It has long been recognized that cultural competence is a critical component of providing family-centered early in- tervention services for birth to 3-year- olds with delays or disabilities in their natural environments. However, the authors of the article point out that cultural competence "is not a discrete skill that can be learned and considered accomplished-it requires [profession- als'] constant commitment" (p. 12). Therefore, the authors have developed a framework to help service providers work toward providing more culturally responsive practices that respect their individuality and culture.

This article begins with a vignette of a developmental specialist who is try- ing to implement family-centered early intervention services with a Filipino- American family who has a 27-month- old son with developmental delays.

The vignette points out the struggles the service provider encountered as she attempted to provide culturally respon- sive services to a family representing a culture different from her own.

The purpose of this article is to pro- vide a framework that service providers can incorporate into their work with children and families from diverse cul- tural backgrounds. The author includes a broad overview of the literature and recommended practices related to cul- tural responsiveness. Then she describes the framework for providing culturally responsive early intervention practices based on the following principles:

1. Examining one's own culture

2. Acquiring knowledge of family cultures

3. Building culturally responsive practices

4. Reflecting on and evaluating practices.

For each of these principles, the au- thor explains the meaning and impor- tance and provides examples of related literature and recommended practices. She also discusses what went wrong in the opening vignette and how it could have been approached differently by applying each of the principles. The article ends with a vignette describing how the service provider incorporated the culturally responsive framework into her practice, which yielded posi- tive results.

The author is commended for pro- viding an invaluable framework that can be used to learn more about and improve culturally responsive practices. Not only does the article provide a thorough description of the model with related literature and recom- mended practices, it also illustrates the use of the model through a vignette to show how services can become more culturally responsive and result in posi- tive outcomes.